funnygirrl

Konata photos

2009-03-27T01:34:00.000-07:00

Konata is my love~~

2008-01-17T10:53:00.001-08:00

NYS College of Veterinary Medicine

The New York State College of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell University was founded in 1894 as the first contract college in New York. Before the creation of the college, instruction in veterinary medicine had been part of Cornell's curriculum since the university's founding. In 1868, when Cornell opened, there was little formal study in the country devoted to the veterinary medicine and Cornell would become a pioneer in the field.

History
Cornell's College of Veterinary Medicine is only one of three veterinary colleges and schools in the Northeastern United States, and one of 28 such colleges and schools in the United States. The college is noted for the James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, a world-renowned center for canine and equine research, a feline health center, as well as for important work in animal vaccine development, animal reproductive research, and identifying common factors that affect the health of both animals and humans. Cornell is consistently ranked the best veterinary college in the nation.
The College of Veterinary Medicine offers programs in veterinary medicine that lead to the degrees of D.V.M., and M.S. and Ph.D. through the Cornell Graduate School. Cornell's College of Veterinary Medicine also consistently ranks amongst the best in its field, being regularly selected as the best college for veterinary medicine by US News and World Report's America's Best Colleges® edition.

2008-01-16T10:14:00.001-08:00

Scott Thornton (born January 9, 1971 in London, Ontario, Canada) is a professional ice hockey winger playing for the Los Angeles Kings.
Thornton was drafted in the first round (3rd overall) by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft. He played thirty-three games for the team his rookie season, accumulating one goal and three assists. He also played left wing for the Dallas Stars and San Jose Sharks. He was signed by San Jose as a free agent on July 1, 2000. In his first season with San Jose, he had a career year, scoring twenty goals playing alongside gritty center Mike Ricci. He signed a two-year contract extension in the 03-04 season. While no longer playing on the top lines, Thornton is a quality third line forward who provides great energy. He and former Sharks teammate Joe Thornton are first cousins.

Contract
In 2004, he signed a two-year, US$3.42 million dollar contract. This contract expired in June 2006, and Thornton became an unrestricted free agent when the Sharks declined to pick up the one-year team option in his contract. On July 1, 2006, he signed a 2 year, $3 million contract with the Los Angeles Kings.

2008-01-15T07:34:00.001-08:00

The True Cross is the name for physical remnants traditionally believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified.
According to a number of early writers, the Empress Helena, (c.250–c.330 AD), mother of Constantine, the first Christian Emperor of Rome, at a date after 312 AD when Christianity was legalised throughout the Empire, travelled to the Holy Land, founding churches and establishing relief agencies for the poor. It was at this time that she discovered the hiding place of three crosses used at the crucifixion of Jesus and the two thieves that were executed with him. By a miracle it was revealed which of the three was the True Cross.
Many churches possess fragmentary remains which are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. Their authenticity is not accepted universally by those of the Christian faith and the accuracy of the reports surrounding the discovery of the True Cross is questioned by many Christians. The acceptance and belief of that part of the tradition that pertains to the Early Christian Church is generally restricted to the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. The Medieval legend of its provenance in the Tree of Life is given less credence.
For detailed information regarding the Crucifixion itself, see Crucifixion of Jesus.

Provenance of the True Cross in "The Golden Legend"
In the late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance, there was a wide general acceptance of the origin of the True Cross and its history preceding the Crucifixion, as recorded by Voragine. This general acceptance is confirmed by the numerous artworks that depict this subject, culminating in one of the most famous fresco cycles of the Renaissance, the Legend of the True Cross by Piero della Francesca, painted on the walls of the chancel of the Church of San Francesco in Arezzo between 1452 and 1466, in which he reproduces faithfully the traditional episodes of the story as recorded in The Golden Legend.
It is worth noting that The Golden Legend and many of its sources had neither acceptance nor parallel in the Greek- or Syriac-speaking worlds. The above pre-Crucifixion history, therefore, is not to be found in Eastern Christianity.

Acceptance of this tradition

Finding the True Cross
Eusebius describes in his Life of Constantine how the site of the Holy Sepulchre, originally a site of veneration for the Christian community in Jerusalem, had been covered with earth and a temple of Venus had been built on top — although Eusebius does not say as much, this would probably have been done as part of Hadrian's reconstruction of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina in 135, following the destruction during the Jewish Revolt of 70 and Bar Kokhba's revolt of 132–135. Following his conversion to Christianity, Emperor Constantine ordered in about 325–326 that the site be uncovered and instructed Saint Macarius, Bishop of Jerusalem, to build a church on the site. In this Life, Eusebius does not mention the finding of the True Cross.

According to Eusebius
Socrates Scholasticus (born c. 380), in his Ecclesiastical History, gives a full description of the discovery [6] that was repeated later by Sozomen and by Theodoret. In it he describes how Saint Helena, Constantine's aged mother, had the temple destroyed and the Sepulchre uncovered, whereupon three crosses and the titulus from Jesus's crucifixion were uncovered as well. In Socrates's version of the story, Macarius had the three crosses placed in turn on a deathly ill woman. This woman recovered at the touch of the third cross, which was taken as a sign that this was the cross of Christ, the new Christian symbol. Socrates also reports that, having also found the nails with which Christ had been fastened to the cross, Helena sent these to Constantinople, where they were incorporated into the emperor's helmet and the bridle of his horse.

According to Socrates Scolasticus
Sozomen (died c. 450), in his Ecclesiastical History [7], gives essentially the same version as Socrates. He also adds that it was said (by whom he does not say) that the location of the Sepulchre was "disclosed by a Hebrew who dwelt in the East, and who derived his information from some documents which had come to him by paternal inheritance" (although Sozomen himself disputes this account) and that a dead person was also revived by the touch of the Cross. Later popular versions of this story state that the Jew who assisted Helena was named Jude or Judas, but later converted to Christianity and took the name Kyriakos.

According to Sozomen
Theodoret (died c. 457) in his Ecclesiastical History Chapter xvii gives what had become the standard version of the finding of the True Cross:
When the empress beheld the place where the Saviour suffered, she immediately ordered the idolatrous temple, which had been there erected, to be destroyed, and the very earth on which it stood to be removed. When the tomb, which had been so long concealed, was discovered, three crosses were seen buried near the Lord's sepulchre. All held it as certain that one of these crosses was that of our Lord Jesus Christ, and that the other two were those of the thieves who were crucified with Him. Yet they could not discern to which of the three the Body of the Lord had been brought nigh, and which had received the outpouring of His precious Blood. But the wise and holy Macarius, the president of the city, resolved this question in the following manner. He caused a lady of rank, who had been long suffering from disease, to be touched by each of the crosses, with earnest prayer, and thus discerned the virtue residing in that of the Saviour. For the instant this cross was brought near the lady, it expelled the sore disease, and made her whole.
With the Cross were also found the Holy Nails, which Helena took with her back to Constantinople. According to Theodoret, "She had part of the cross of our Saviour conveyed to the palace. The rest was enclosed in a covering of silver, and committed to the care of the bishop of the city, whom she exhorted to preserve it carefully, in order that it might be transmitted uninjured to posterity."
Another popular ancient version from the Syriac tradition replaced Helena with a fictitious first-century empress named Protonike.
Historians consider these versions to be apocryphal in varying degrees. It is certain, however, that the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre was completed by 335 and that alleged relics of the Cross were being venerated there by the 340s, as they are mentioned in the Catecheses of Cyril of Jerusalem (see below).

According to Theodoret
The silver reliquary that was left at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre in care of the bishop of Jerusalem was exhibited periodically to the faithful. In the 380s a nun named Egeria who was travelling on pilgrimage described the veneration of the True Cross at Jerusalem in a long letter, the Itinerario Egeriae that she sent back to her community of women:
Then a chair is placed for the bishop in Golgotha behind the [liturgical] Cross, which is now standing; the bishop duly takes his seat in the chair, and a table covered with a linen cloth is placed before him; the deacons stand round the table, and a silver-gilt casket is brought in which is the holy wood of the Cross. The casket is opened and [the wood] is taken out, and both the wood of the Cross and the title are placed upon the table. Now, when it has been put upon the table, the bishop, as he sits, holds the extremities of the sacred wood firmly in his hands, while the deacons who stand around guard it. It is guarded thus because the custom is that the people, both faithful and catechumens, come one by one and, bowing down at the table, kiss the sacred wood and pass through. And because, I know not when, some one is said to have bitten off and stolen a portion of the sacred wood, it is thus guarded by the deacons who stand around, lest any one approaching should venture to do so again. And as all the people pass by one by one, all bowing themselves, they touch the Cross and the title, first with their foreheads and then with their eyes; then they kiss the Cross and pass through, but none lays his hand upon it to touch it. When they have kissed the Cross and have passed through, a deacon stands holding the ring of Solomon and the horn from which the kings were anointed; they kiss the horn also and gaze at the ring…
Before long, but perhaps not until after the visit of Egeria, it was possible also to venerate the crown of thorns, the pillar at which Christ was scourged, and the lance that pierced his side.
In 614 the Sassanid Emperor Khosrau II ("Chosroes") removed the part of the cross as a trophy, when he captured Jerusalem. Thirteen years later, in 628, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius defeated Khosrau and retook the relic, which he at first placed in Constantinople, and later took back to Jerusalem in March 21, 630. [8] Around 1009, Christians in Jerusalem hid the part of the cross and it remained hidden until it was rediscovered during the First Crusade, on August 5, 1099, by Arnulf Malecorne, the first Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, conveniently at a moment when a morale boost was needed. The relic that Arnulf discovered was a small fragment of wood embedded in a golden cross, and it became the most sacred relic of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, with none of the controversy that had followed their discovery of the Holy Lance in Antioch. It was housed in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre under the protection of the Latin Patriarch, who marched with it ahead of the army before every battle. It was captured by Saladin during the Battle of Hattin in 1187 and subsequently disappeared.
Other fragments of the Cross were further broken up, and the pieces were widely distributed; in 348, in one of his Catecheses, Cyril of Jerusalem remarked that the "whole earth is full of the relics of the Cross of Christ," . However, although it is possible, the poem need not be referring to this specific relic or have this incident as the reason for its composition.

Dispersal of relics of the True Cross
St John Chrysostom wrote homilies on the three crosses:
Kings removing their diadems take up the cross, the symbol of their Saviour's death; on the purple, the cross; in their prayers, the cross; on their armour, the cross; on the holy table, the cross; throughout the universe, the cross. The cross shines brighter than the sun.
The Roman Catholic Church, many Protestant denominations (most notably those with Anglican origins), and the Eastern Orthodox churches celebrate the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, the anniversary of the dedication of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In later centuries, these celebrations also included commemoration of the rescue of the True Cross from the Persians in 628. In the Gallician usage, beginning about the seventh century, the Feast of the Cross was celebrated on May 3. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, when the Gallician and Roman practices were combined, the September date, for which the Vatican adopted the official name "Triumph of the Cross" in 1963, was used to commemorate the rescue from the Persians and the May date was kept as the "Invention of the True Cross" to commemorate the finding. The September date is often referred to in the West as Holy Cross Day; the May date was dropped from the liturgical calendar by the Second Vatican Council in 1970. (See also Roodmas.) The Orthodox still commemorate both events on September 14, one of the twelve Great Feasts of the liturgical year, and the 'Procession of the Venerable Wood of the Cross' on 1 August, the day on which the relics of the True Cross would be carried through the streets of Constantinople to bless the city [10].
In addition to celebrations on fixed days, there are certain days of the variable cycle when the Cross is celebrated. The Roman Catholic Church has a formal 'Adoration of the Cross' (the term is inaccurate, but sanctioned by long use[11]) during the services for Good Friday, while the Orthodox celebrate an additional Veneration of the Cross on the third Sunday of Great Lent. In Greek Orthodox churches everywhere, a replica of the cross is brought out in procession on Holy Thursday for the people to venerate.

Veneration of the Cross

Crucifixion
Battle of Hattin
Relic
Christian cross
Île de la Cité
Jesus
Stavelot Triptych
Meskel
Titulus Crucis
Santa Croce in Gerusalemme Bibliography

2008-01-14T07:31:00.001-08:00

Early history
In 1976, RFE was merged with a very similar Congress funded anti-communist organization called Radio Liberty (RL, founded in 1951 by the American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia) and the group name was officially changed to Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL).
Soviet authorities regularly attempted to jam RFE/RL broadcasts and these efforts did not end until 1988. From 1985 until 1993 the organization also ran Radio Free Afghanistan.
The collapse of the Soviet Union reduced the budget for RFE/RL: its headquarters were moved to Prague in 1995 and European operations were curtailed (save those of the South Slavic Department). However operations were expanded elsewhere; in 1998 Radio Free Iraq and a Persian service (Radio Farda) were started, in 1999 a service was started in Kosovo, and in 2002 Radio Free Afghanistan was restarted and the Persian Service was incorporated into Radio Farda. In addition, in 1994 the mission of the Board for International Broadcasting was transferred to the Broadcasting Board of Governors.
In most cases, listening to RFE in eastern European Communist countries was illegal, and had to be done in secret. Often the governments of these states would electronically jam the transmissions. Also, more 'active' measures were taken to combat the transmissions. In 1965-71 an agent of the Służba Bezpieczeństwa successfully infiltrated the station with an operative (Capt. Andrzej Czechowicz).

After merger with Radio Liberty
Communism on the Spot
A Publice Service of
Radio Liberty
IN ITS 10th ANNIVERSARY YEAR
the most powerful free voice broadcasting exclusively to Soviet Union
30 EAST 42nd STREET, NEW YORK 17 N.Y. TN-75200
No. 221
COMMUNISM ON THE SPOT. This is _____ speaking for RADIO LIBERTY. Failures in industrial planning continue to be a serious bottleneck to Soviet progress. On the basis of articles in the Soviet press, faulty planning is cutting expected growth to a minimum. Ironically, this state of affairs is not reflected in Soviet Statistics. For example, a 1962 statistical report claimed that the volume of industrial output exceeded by nearly 10% that for a corresponding period last year. How can this discrepancy between statistical claims and the actual situation be explained? Very simply. As in other cases, figures which are of no significance to the national economy are quoted to prove that industrial progress is proceeding as planned. This has been a public service presentation of this station and of RADIO LIBERTY, in its 10th Anniversary Year, the most powerful free voice broadcasting exclusively to the Soviet Union.
Radio Liberty, the Free Voice of the Peoples of the Soviet Union, broadcasts in 17 languages of the USSR from transmitters in West Germany, Spain and Formosa.

RFE people

Cold War
Prometheism
Voice of America
Radio Free Asia
Ogulsapar Muradova

2008-01-13T09:04:00.001-08:00

Waltham is an inner suburb of Christchurch, New Zealand, located two kilometres southeast of the city centre. State Highway 73, part of Christchurch's ring road system, runs through the suburb, as does the Heathcote River and the Christchurch - Lyttelton rail corridor. The Christchurch gasworks was located at the inner boundary of Waltham until its closure ca. 1980.
Waltham was originally part of the Sydenham borough and was incorporated into the City of Christchurch in 1903. It is named for the village of Waltham, Lincolnshire in England.
The suburb (as defined by the Statistics New Zealand meshblock) is about 1 km², much of which is occupied by light and heavy industry - the residential population is less than 1000. The suburb ranks below average in income and high in unemployment. Amenities include Jade Stadium, Christchurch's international rugby and cricket venue, and Waltham Lido pool.

2008-01-12T07:37:00.001-08:00

The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) consists of techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of ore, and then alloying those metals in order to cast bronze. The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system for prehistoric societies. In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world. In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the Neolithic is directly followed by the Iron Age.

Origins
The Bronze Age in the Near East is divided into three main periods (the dates are very approximate):
Each main period can be divided into shorter subcategories such as EB I, EB II, MB IIa etc.
Metallurgy developed first in Anatolia, modern Turkey. The mountains in the Anatolian highland possessed rich deposits of copper and tin. Copper was also mined in Cyprus, the Negev desert, Iran and around the Persian Gulf. Copper was usually mixed with arsenic, yet the growing demand for tin resulted in the establishment of distant trade routes in and out of Anatolia. The precious copper was also imported by sea routes to the great kingdoms of Mesopotamia.
The Early Bronze Age saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the Uruk period in the fifth millennium BCE). In the Middle Bronze Age movements of people partially changed the political pattern of the Near East (Amorites, Hittites, Hurrians, Hyksos and possibly the Israelites). The Late Bronze Age is characterized by competing powerful kingdoms and their vassal states (Assyria, Babylonia, Hittites, Mitanni). Extensive contacts were made with the Aegean civilization (Ahhiyawa, Alashiya) in which the copper trade played an important role. This period ended in a widespread collapse which affected much of the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East.
Iron began to be worked already in Late Bronze Age Anatolia. The transition into the Iron Age c.1200 BCE was more of a political change in the Near East rather than of new developments in metalworking.

EBA - Early Bronze Age (c.3500-2000 BCE)
MBA - Middle Bronze Age (c.2000-1600 BCE)
LBA - Late Bronze Age (c.1600-1100 BCE) Ancient Near East

Main article: Indus Valley civilization Indian Bronze Age

East Asia

Main article: Erlitou China
In Ban Chiang, Thailand, (Southeast Asia) bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BCE [2].
In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artefacts . Dating is still currently broad . (3500 BCE - 500 BCE) [3]

Southeast Asia

Main article: Mumun Pottery Period Korean peninsula
The Aegean Bronze Age civilizations established a far-ranging trade network. This network imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus, where copper was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide, and supported the trade. Isotopic analysis of the tin in some Mediterranean bronze objects indicates it came from as far away as Great Britain. believe that ancient empires were prone to misvalue staples in favor of luxuries, and thereby perish by famines created by uneconomic trading.

Main article: Bronze Age collapse Europe
In Central Europe, the early Bronze Age Unetice culture (1800-1600 BCE) includes numerous smaller groups like the Straubingen, Adlerberg and Hatvan cultures. Some very rich burials, such as the one located at Leubingen with grave gifts crafted from gold, point to an increase of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture. All in all, cemeteries of this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is followed by the middle Bronze Age (1600-1200 BCE) Tumulus culture, which is characterised by inhumation burials in tumuli (barrows). In the eastern Hungarian Körös tributaries, the early Bronze Age first saw the introduction of the Mako culture, followed by the Ottomany and Gyulavarsand cultures.
The late Bronze Age urnfield culture, (1300 BCE-700 BCE) is characterized by cremation burials. It includes the Lusatian culture in eastern Germany and Poland (1300-500 BCE) that continues into the Iron Age. The Central European Bronze Age is followed by the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (700-450 BCE).
Important sites include:

Biskupin (Poland)
Nebra (Germany)
Vráble (Slovakia)
Zug-Sumpf, Zug, Switzerland Central Europe

Main article: Nordic Bronze Age Northern Europe
Some scholars date some arsenical bronze artefacts of the Maykop culture in the North Caucasus as far back as the mid 4th millennium BCE.

Caucasus

Main article: Bronze Age Britain Great Britain

Ferriby Boats
Langdon Bay hoard - see also Dover Museum
Divers unearth Bronze Age hoard off the coast of Devon
Moor Sands finds, including a remarkably well preserved and complete sword which has parallels with material from the Seine basin of northern France Bronze Age boats
The Bronze Age in Ireland commenced in the centuries around 2000 BCE when copper was alloyed with tin and used to manufacture Ballybeg type flat axes and associated metalwork. The preceding period is known as the Copper Age and is characterised by the production of flat axes, daggers, halberds and awls in copper. The period is divided into three phases Early Bronze Age 2000-1500 BCE; Middle Bronze Age 1500-1200 BC and Late Bronze Age 1200-c.500 BCE. Ireland, is also known for a relatively large number of Early Bronze Age Burials.
The Early Bronze Age: one of the characteristic artifact types of the Copper/Bronze Age in Ireland is the flat axe. There are 5 main types of flat axes, Lough Ravel c.2200 BCE Ballybeg c.2000 BCE, Killaha c.2000 BCE, Ballyvalley c. 2000-1600 BCE, Derryniggin c. 1600 BCE and a number of metal ingots in the shape of axes.

Ireland

Americas
The Bronze Age in the Andes region of South America is thought to have begun at about 900 BCE when Chavin artisans discovered how to alloy copper with tin. The first objects produced were mostly utilitarian in nature, such as axes, knives, and agricultural implements. Decorative work in gold, silver and copper was already a highly developed tradition, and as the Chavin became more experienced in bronze-working technology they produced many ornate and highly decorative objects for administrative, religious, and other ceremonial purposes.

Notes

Eogan, George (1983) The hoards of the Irish later Bronze Age, Dublin : University College, 331p., ISBN 0-901120-77-4
Hall, David and Coles, John (1994) Fenland survey : an essay in landscape and persistence, Archaeological report 1, London : English Heritage, 170 p., ISBN 1-85074-477-7
Pernicka, E., Eibner, C., Öztunah, Ö., Wagener, G.A. (2003) "Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Northeast Aegean", In: Wagner, G.A., Pernicka, E. and Uerpmann, H-P. (eds), Troia and the Troad : scientific approaches, Natural science in archaeology, Berlin; London : Springer, ISBN 3-540-43711-8, p. 143–172
Waddell, John (1998) The prehistoric archaeology of Ireland, Galway University Press, 433 p., ISBN 1-901421-10-4

2008-01-11T09:00:00.001-08:00

A list of works by the prominent American economist Milton Friedman follows:

Books and articles for general audiences

"Professor Pigou's Method for Measuring Elasticities of Demand From Budgetary Data" The Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 50, No. 1 (Nov., 1935), pp. 151-163 JSTOR
"Marginal Utility of Money and Elasticities of Demand," The Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 50, No. 3 (May, 1936), pp. 532-533 JSTOR
"The Use of Ranks to Avoid the Assumption of Normality Implicit in the Analysis of Variance," Journal of the American Statistical Association Vol. 32, No. 200 (Dec., 1937), pp. 675-701 JSTOR
"The Inflationary Gap: II. Discussion of the Inflationary Gap," American Economic Review Vol. 32, No. 2, Part 1 (Jun., 1942), pp. 314-320 JSTOR
"The Spendings Tax as a Wartime Fiscal Measure," American Economic Review Vol. 33, No. 1, Part 1 (Mar., 1943), pp. 50-62 JSTOR
Taxing to Prevent Inflation: Techniques for Estimating Revenue Requirements (Columbia U.P. 1943, 236pp) with Carl Shoup and Ruth P. Mack
Income from Independent Professional Practice with Simon Kuznets (1945), Friedman's PhD thesis
"Lange on Price Flexibility and Employment: A Methodological Criticism," American Economic Review Vol. 36, No. 4 (Sep., 1946), pp. 613-631 JSTOR
"Utility Analysis of Choices Involving Risk" with Leonard Savage, 1948, Journal of Political Economy Vol. 56, No. 4 (Aug., 1948), pp. 279-304 JSTOR
"A Monetary and Fiscal Framework for Economic Stability", 1948, American Economic Review, Vol. 38, No. 3 (Jun., 1948), pp. 245-264 JSTOR
"A Fiscal and Monetary Framework for Economic Stability," Econometrica Vol. 17, Supplement: Report of the Washington Meeting (Jul., 1949), pp. 330-332 JSTOR
"The Marshallian Demand Curve," The Journal of Political Economy Vol. 57, No. 6 (Dec., 1949), pp. 463-495 JSTOR
"Wesley C. Mitchell as an Economic Theorist," The Journal of Political Economy Vol. 58, No. 6 (Dec., 1950), pp. 465-493 JSTOR
"Some Comments on the Significance of Labor Unions for Economic Policy", 1951, in D. McC. Wright, editor, The Impact of the Union.
"Commodity-Reserve Currency," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 59, No. 3 (Jun., 1951), pp. 203-232 JSTOR
"Price, Income, and Monetary Changes in Three Wartime Periods," American Economic Review Vol. 42, No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the Sixty-fourth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May, 1952), pp. 612-625 JSTOR
"The Expected-Utility Hypothesis and the Measurability of Utility", with Leonard Savage, 1952, Journal of Political Economy Vol. 60, No. 6 (Dec., 1952), pp. 463-474 JSTOR
The Methodology of Positive Economics (1953)
Essays in Positive Economics (1953)
"Choice, Chance, and the Personal Distribution of Income," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 61, No. 4 (Aug., 1953), pp. 277-290 JSTOR
"The Quantity Theory of Money: A restatement", 1956, in Friedman, editor, Studies in Quantity Theory.
A Theory of the Consumption Function (1957)
"A Statistical Illusion in Judging Keynesian Models" with Gary S. Becker, Journal of Political Economy Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1957), pp. 64-75 JSTOR
"The Supply of Money and Changes in Prices and Output", 1958, in Relationship of Prices to Economic Stability and Growth.
"The Demand for Money: Some Theoretical and Empirical Results," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 67, No. 4 (Aug., 1959), pp. 327-351 JSTOR
A Program for Monetary Stability (Fordham University Press, 1960) 110 pp online version
"Monetary Data and National Income Estimates," Economic Development and Cultural Change Vol. 9, No. 3, (Apr., 1961), pp. 267-286 JSTOR
"The Lag in Effect of Monetary Policy," Journal of Political EconomyVol. 69, No. 5 (Oct., 1961), pp. 447-466 JSTOR
Price Theory ISBN 0-202-06074-8 (1962), college textbook online version
"The Interpolation of Time Series by Related Series," Journal of the American Statistical Association Vol. 57, No. 300 (Dec., 1962), pp. 729-757 JSTOR
"Should There be an Independent Monetary Authority?", in L.B. Yeager, editor, In Search of a Monetary Constitution
Inflation: Causes and consequences, 1963.
"Money and Business Cycles," The Review of Economics and Statistics Vol. 45, No. 1, Part 2, Supplement (Feb., 1963), pp. 32-64 JSTOR
A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960, with Anna J. Schwartz, 1963; part 3 reprinted as The Great Contraction
"Money and Business Cycles" with A. J. Schwartz, 1963, Review of Economics & Statistics.
"The Relative Stability of Monetary Velocity and the Investment Multiplier in the United States, 1898-1958", with D. Meiselman, 1963, in Stabilization Policies.
"A Reply to Donald Hester", with D. Meiselman, 1964
"Reply to Ando and Modigliani and to DePrano and Mayer," with David Meiselman. American Economic Review Vol. 55, No. 4 (Sep., 1965), pp. 753-785 JSTOR
"Interest Rates and the Demand for Money," Journal of Law and Economics Vol. 9 (Oct., 1966), pp. 71-85 JSTOR
The Balance of Payments: Free Versus Fixed Exchange Rates with Robert V. Roosa (1967)]
"The Monetary Theory and Policy of Henry Simons," Journal of Law and Economics Vol. 10 (Oct., 1967), pp. 1-13 JSTOR
"What Price Guideposts?", in G.P. Schultz, R.Z. Aliber, editors, Guidelines
"The Role of Monetary Policy." American Economic Review, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Mar., 1968), pp. 1-17 JSTOR presidential address to American Economics Association
"Money: the Quantity Theory", 1968, IESS
"The Definition of Money: Net Wealth and Neutrality as Criteria" with Anna J. Schwartz, Journal of Money, Credit and Banking Vol. 1, No. 1 (Feb., 1969), pp. 1-14 JSTOR
'Monetary vs. Fiscal Policy with Walter W. Heller (1969)
"Comment on Tobin", 1970, Quarterly Journal of Economics
"Monetary Statistics of the United States: Sources, methods. with Anna J. Schwartz, 1970.
"A Theoretical Framework for Monetary Analysis," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 78, No. 2 (Mar., 1970), pp. 193-238 JSTOR
The Counter-Revolution in Monetary Theory 1970.
"A Monetary Theory of National Income", 1971, Journal of Political Economy
"Government Revenue from Inflation," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 79, No. 4 (Jul., 1971), pp. 846-856 JSTOR
"Have Monetary Policies Failed?" American Economic Review Vol. 62, No. 1/2 (1972), pp. 11-18 JSTOR
"Comments on the Critics," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 80, No. 5 (Sep., 1972), pp. 906-950 JSTOR
"Comments on the Critics", 1974, in Gordon, ed. Milton Friedman and his Critics.
"Monetary Correction: A proposal for escalation clauses to reduce the cost of ending inflation", 1974
The Optimum Quantity of Money: And Other Essays (1976) online version
Milton Friedman in Australia, 1975 (1975)
Milton Friedman's Monetary Framework: A Debate with His Critics (1975)
"Comments on Tobin and Buiter", 1976, in J. Stein, editor, Monetarism.
"Inflation and Unemployment: Nobel lecture", 1977, Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 85, pp. 451-72. JSTOR
"Interrelations between the United States and the United Kingdom, 1873-1975.", with A.J. Schwartz, 1982, J Int Money and Finance
Monetary Trends in the United States and the United Kingdom: Their relations to income, prices and interest rates, 1876-1975. with Anna J. Schwartz, 1982
"Monetary Policy: Theory and Practice," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking Vol. 14, No. 1 (Feb., 1982), pp. 98-118 JSTOR
"Monetary Policy: Tactics versus strategy", 1984, in Moore, editor, To Promote Prosperity.
"Lessons from the 1979-1982 Monetary Policy Experiment, " Papers and Proceedings, American Economic Association. pp. 397-401. (1984).
"Has Government Any Role in Money?" with Anna J. Schwartz, 1986, JME
"Quantity Theory of Money", in J. Eatwell, M. Milgate, P. Newman, eds., The New Palgrave (1998)
"Money and the Stock Market," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 96, No. 2 (Apr., 1988), pp. 221-245 JSTOR
"Bimetallism Revisited," Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol. 4, No. 4 (Autumn, 1990), pp. 85-104 JSTOR
"The Crime of 1873," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 98, No. 6 (Dec., 1990), pp. 1159-1194 JSTOR
"Franklin D. Roosevelt, Silver, and China," Journal of Political Economy Vol. 100, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp. 62-83 JSTOR

2008-01-10T08:23:00.001-08:00

André Couto (born December 14, 1976 in Lisbon) is a Portuguese racing driver who races with a Macau license.

Career
André Couto started his career in Karting in Macau influenced by the popular Macau Grand Prix and friends who competed in the local Karting championship. He rapidly enjoyed success and started competing and winning in international level. He moved to racing cars in 1995 where he competed in European Formula Opel Lotus (Winning a round in the Estoril Circuit). 1995 was also the debut year in the Formula Three event of the Macau Grand Prix where he briefly led after a duel with race winner Ralf Schumacher.

Formula Three
Couto graduated to Formula 3000 in 1998 and stayed there for 1999 and 2000. Although he scored points on several occasions, he never achieved any great success. His best result was third place at the Nürburgring in 2000.

An assortment of drives
Since 2005, Couto has competed in the Super GT Championship in the GT500 category.

2008-01-09T09:06:00.001-08:00

The 1966 UK general election on 31 March 1966 and was called by sitting Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson. Wilson's decision to call an election turned on the fact that his government, elected only two years previously in 1964 had an unworkable small majority of only 4 MPs. Wilson's hope that he would be returned to office with a larger majority had been encouraged by the government's victory in a by-election in Kingston upon Hull North. In the end the hope was vindicated: the Labour government was returned with a much larger majority of 96.

Results
Headline Swing: 2.70% to Labour

Summary of GB vote (excluding Northern Ireland)
From Conservative to Labour (46 seats): Aberdeen South, Bebington, Bedford, Bedfordshire South, Berwick and East Lothian, Billericay, Birmingham Perry Barr, Bradford West, Brentford and Chiswick, Bristol North East, Bristol North West, Cambridge, Cardiff North, Chislehurst, Conway, Croydon South, Eton and Slough, Exeter, Hampstead, Harrow East, High Peak, Hornchurch, Ilford South, Lancaster, Lewisham North, Lewisham West, Middleton and Prestwich, Monmouth, Norwood, Nottingham South, Oxford, Plymouth Sutton, Portsmouth South, Preston North, Reading, Rugby, Rushcliffe, Sheffield, Heeley, Smethwick, Southampton Test, Stretford, The Wrekin, Uxbridge, Walthamstow East, Yarmouth and York From Conservative to Liberal (4 seats): Aberdeenshire West, Cheadle, Cornwall, North and Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles From Labour to Liberal (1 seat): Colne Valley From Liberal to Labour (2 seats): Cardiganshire and Caithness and Sutherland
Televised declarations

MPs elected in the United Kingdom general election, 1966

2008-01-08T10:44:00.001-08:00

Qoppa (uppercase Ϙ, lowercase ϙ) is an obsolete letter of the Greek alphabet and has a numeric value of 90. It has been attested in early Aeolic and Boeotian scripts, while the sound [kʷ] is attested in the Linear B syllabary. Greek dropped the sound, a labial-velar plosive, it presented in the post-Mycenaean era, and the letter survived for a few more centuries in certain dialects before becoming altogether extinct by pre-Classical times. There are two very different glyphs for qoppa: "archaic qoppa" (Ϙ ϙ) used to write words and "numeric qoppa" (Ϟ ϟ) used in modern Greek legal documentation.
Qoppa was originally borrowed from the Phoenicians, who had /q/ (a voiceless uvular plosive) in their language. It was later imported into the Etruscan alphabet, and through this eventually into the Latin alphabet, in its current form Q. It was also adopted into the early Cyrillic alphabet, as koppa (Ҁ, ҁ).

2008-01-07T08:06:00.000-08:00

Götaland (listen (help·info)), Gothia, Gothland, Gautland, Geatland is a historical land of Sweden. Geographically it is located in the south of Sweden, bounded to the north by Svealand, with the deep woods of Tiveden, Tylöskog and Kolmården marking the border.
Götaland once consisted of petty kingdoms, which its inhabitants called Gautar in Old Norse. It is generally agreed that these were the same as the Geatas, the people of the hero Beowulf in England's national epic by the same name. The region is also the traditional origin of the Goths (more specifically the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea).

Etymology
Västergötland and Östergötland, once rival kingdoms themselves, constitute Götaland proper. The Geatish kings, however, belong to the domain of Norse mythology.
Geatland is the land in which the medieval hero of the poem,Beowulf, is said to have lived.
It was only late in the Middle Ages that Götaland began to be perceived as a part of Sweden. In Old Norse and in Old English sources, Gautland/Geatland is still treated as a separate country from Sweden. In Sögubrot af Nokkrum for instance, Kolmården between Svealand and Östergötland is described as the border between Sweden and Ostrogothia (...Kolmerkr, er skilr Svíþjóð ok Eystra-Gautland...), and in Hervarar saga, king Ingold I rides to Sweden through Östergötland: Ingi konungr fór með hirð sína ok sveit nokkura ok hafði lítinn her. Hann reið austr um Smáland ok í eystra Gautland ok svá í Svíþjóð. The lord, Bo Jonsson Grip, was probably the one who was best acquainted with the geography of the Swedish kingdom since he owned more than half of it. In 1384, he stated in his will that the kingdom consisted of Swerige (Sweden, i.e. Svealand), Österland (i.e. Finland) and Göthaland (i.e. Götaland).
The small countries to the south of Finnveden, Kind, Möre, Njudung, Tjust, Tveta, Värend, Ydre were merged into the province of Småland (literally: [the] "small countries"). Off the coast of Småland was the island of Öland, which became a separate province.
Dal to the north west became the province of Dalsland.
Småland, Öland and Dalsland were already seen as lands belonging to Götaland in (Scandinavian) medieval times (12th–15th century).
In the Treaty of Roskilde (1658), the Danish kingdom ceded what is today often referred to as Skåneland and Bohuslän to Sweden. Skåneland, which had constituted the eastern part of Denmark, became the Swedish provinces of Skåne, Halland and Blekinge. The new provinces came to be counted as part of Götaland.
The island of Gotland shifted allegiance between the Swedes and the Danes several times. Although the island may be perceived to have closer links to Svealand or to Denmark (Scania), it is counted as belonging to Götaland.
Värmland originally belonged to the Göta Court of Appeal, but the province changed to become part of the Court of Appeal for Svealand for a period of time in the early 19th century. Even though Värmland historically was a part of Götaland, it has since that time generally been counted as part of Svealand, although it is now part of the Court of Appeal for Western Sweden.

History
Today, Götaland has no administrative function and is thus an unofficial entity, but it is generally considered to be one of three Swedish lands or regions. It is made up of ten provinces, based loosely on the area originally under the jurisdiction of the Göta Court of Appeals (established in 1634), to which the Scanian lands, Gotland and Bohuslän were added in 1658-1679:

Skåne, Blekinge and Halland were a Danish land known as the Scanian lands or the Eastern Province until 1658 when the Treaty of Roskilde ceded the region to Sweden. Furthermore, Bohuslän belonged to Norway until 1658, and Gotland belonged to Denmark 1361-1645 and 1676-1679. Since 1820, Scania and Blekinge form a separate court of appeal district under the Scania and Blekinge Court of Appeal in Malmö.

Blekinge
Bohuslän
Dalsland
Gotland
Halland
Skåne
Småland
Västergötland
Öland
Östergötland

2008-01-02T07:30:00.000-08:00

A list of henchman from the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No from the List of James Bond henchmen.

The Three Blind Mice
Dr No's photographer (named Freelance by James Bond) is an unnamed female photographer (Though in the novel,her name is Annabelle Chung) working for Doctor Julius No of SPECTRE in the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No.
The photographer, an attractive dark-haired women of Central or South American descent, first appears in the film at Kingston airport where she attempts to take a photograph of James Bond as he arrives in Jamaica. Bond half-consciously shields his face with his hat and gets into the car of Mr. Jones also of SPECTRE.
She later reappears in the film, again sent by Dr. No to take another photograph of Bond as he is discussing plans with Felix Leiter and Quarrel at a Jamaican calypso restaurant. This time she is spotted by Bond who orders Quarrel to seize her. Bond asks her who she is working for and she replies that she was working for the Daily Gleaner, a local newspaper in Kingston. When Bond asks the head waiter to check it out, she is forced to change her story and confess that she was a freelance photographer. She then attempts to physically harm Quarrel by cutting his face with a broken flashbulb from her camera. Quarrel seems unaffected and threatens to break her arm. Bond then destroys her film and she is set free, never to be seen again, after stating that the men will be sorry for their actions.
Marguerite LeWars, who portrayed the photographer, was the reigning Miss Jamaica at the time of shooting in 1962.

Professor R. J. Dent
Miss Taro (Zena Marshall) is a villainess from Dr. No, the series' debut film. She is a Bond girl and a Henchwoman. She is a secretary in Government House. Kingston, Jamaica, to Colonial Secretary, Pleydell-Smith. She also is a henchwoman to Doctor Julius No; only Bond discovers this. He first meets her at Government House. When she grasps that Bond and Pleydell-Smith are talking about Dr. No, she spies through the keyhole of his office door. Bond then persuades her to a rendez-vous at her house outside of Kingston; he does not know she is a honey trap. Enroute to her house, Bond eludes Spectre pursuers and arrives at her house; she is surprised.
Miss Taro then copulates with Bond, making time for Professor Dent to go there and kill him. She is the first Bond Girl agent double-oh seven seduces while on mission; the previous liaison was Sylvia Trench, who is unrelated to the mission. Bond then telephones for a taxi to collect them for dinner out. She boards the taxi, then understands it is a police trap, not a taxi; she is arrested, Bond remains in her house, awaiting Professor dent to kill him.

2008-01-01T10:49:00.000-08:00

Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See International Phonetic Alphabet for a pronunciation key.
Received Pronunciation (RP) is a form of pronunciation of the English language which has been long perceived as uniquely prestigious amongst British accents and is the usual accent taught to non-native speakers learning British English.
The earlier mentions of the term can found in H. C. Wyld's A Short History of English (1914) and in Daniel Jones's An Outline of English Phonetics, although the latter stated that he only used the term "for want of a better".

Usage
Except in the last bastions of "real" RP use, the pronunciation has in fact changed over time. For instance, foreigners learning their English accents from Royal speeches would find they are looked at very strangely in the streets of Britain, because the Queen's "speech voice" has changed little since the 1950s, and now sounds archaic even to most people who would consider that they speak "correctly" (i.e. RP).
The change in RP may even be observed in the home of "BBC English". The BBC accent from the 1950s was distinctly different from today's: a news report from the '50s is instantly recognisable as such, and a mock-1950s BBC voice is often used for comic effect in TV or radio programmes wishing to satirize outdated social attitudes such as the Harry Enfield Show and its "Mr. Cholmondeley-Warner" sketches.

Changing status of Received Pronunciation
Traditionally, Received Pronunciation is the accent of English which is "the everyday speech of families of Southern English persons whose menfolk have been educated at the great public boarding schools" (Daniel Jones, English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1926—he had earlier called it "Public School Pronunciation"), and which conveys no information about that speaker's region of origin prior to attending the school.
It is the business of educated people to speak so that no-one may be able to tell in what county their childhood was passed.
A. Burrell, Recitation. A Handbook for Teachers in Public Elementary School, 1891.
For many years, the use of Received Pronunciation was considered to be a trait of education. It was a standard practice until around the 1950s for university students with regional accents to modify their speech to be closer to RP. As a result, at a time when only around five percent of the population attended universities, elitist notions sprang up around it and those who used it may have considered those who did not to be less educated than themselves. Historically the most prestigious British educational institutions (Oxford, Cambridge, many public schools) were located in England, so those who were educated there would pick up the accents of their peers. (There have always been exceptions: for example, Morningside, Edinburgh and Kelvinside in Glasgow had Scottish "pan loaf" accents aspiring to a similar prestige.)

Traditional status
From the 1970s onwards, attitudes towards Received Pronunciation have been slowly changing. One of the primary catalysts for this was the influence in the 1960s of Labour prime minister Harold Wilson. Unusually for a recent prime minister, he spoke with a strong regional Yorkshire accent, exaggerated, some said, to appeal to the working classes his party represented.
As a result of the trend begun by Wilson and others during the 1960s, the accents of the English regions and of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland are today more likely to be considered to be on a par with Received Pronunciation. BBC reporters no longer need to, and often do not, use Received Pronunciation, which in some contexts may sound out of place, and be discouraged in favour of less "cultivated" accents.

Changing attitudes

Phonology
A table containing the consonant phonemes is given below

Consonants
The vowel phonemes of Received Pronunciation are shown in the following tables:
Examples: /ɪ/ in kit and mirror, /ʊ/ in foot and put, /ɛ/ in dress and merry, /ʌ/ in strut and curry, /æ/ in trap and marry, /ɒ/ in lot and orange, /ə/ in the first syllable of ago and in the second of sofa.
Examples: /iː/ in fleece, /uː/ in goose, /ɜː/ in nurse and bird, /ɔː/ in north and thought, /ɑː/ in father and start.
RP's long vowels are slightly diphthongised. Especially the vowels /iː/ and /uː/ which are often narrowly transcribed in phonetic literature as diphthongs [ɪj] and [ʊw].
Although these vowels are traditionally described as long vowels, whereby they have received the <ː> mark after their symbol, the length also varies according to the surrounding sounds. If a long vowel is preceded by a voiceless consonant sound (e.g. /p k s/) its length will be equivalent to that of the short vowels, with the exception of /ɑː/ which becomes halfway between long and short. e.g. Burt = [bɜt], seat = [sit], garth = [gɑˑθ].
The short vowel /æ/ becomes longer if it is followed by a voiced consonant sound. Thus, in narrow transcription bat = [bæt] and bad = [bæːd]. In natural speech, the plosives /t/ and /d/ may be unreleased utterance-finally, thus distinction between these words would rest mostly on vowel length.
Examples: /ɪə/ in near and theatre, /eɪ/ in face, /ɛə/ in square and Mary, /əʊ/ in goat, /aɪ/ in price, /aʊ/ in mouth, /ɔɪ/ in choice, /ʊə/ in tour.
The off-glide of /eɪ/ (and also the off-glides of /ij/ and /uw/) can be predicted by a phonological rule and so are not represented in some underlying representations.
There are also the triphthongs /aɪə/ as in fire and /aʊə/ as in tower. The realizations sketched in the following table are not phonemically distinctive, though the difference between /aʊə/ /ɑɪə/ and /ɑ:/ may be neutralised under [ɑ:] or [ä:]
Not all reference sources use the same system of transcription. In particular
Most of these variants are used in the transcription devised by Clive Upton for the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993) and now used in many other Oxford University Press dictionaries.

/æ/ as in trap is often written /a/.
/e/ as in dress is often written /ɛ/.
/ɜː/ as in nurse is sometimes written /əː/.
/aɪ/ as in price is sometimes written /ʌɪ/.
/aʊ/ as in mouse is sometimes written /ɑʊ/
/ɛə/ as in square is sometimes written /eə/, and is also sometimes treated as a long monophthong /ɛː/. Vowels

Unlike most forms of English English and American English, RP is a broad A accent, so words like bath and chance appear with /ɑː/ and not /æ/.
RP is a non-rhotic accent, meaning /r/ does not occur unless followed immediately by a vowel.
Like other accents of southern England, RP has undergone the wine-whine merger so the phoneme /ʍ/ is not present.
RP uses [ɫ], called dark l, when /l/ occurs at the end of a syllable, as in well, and also for syllabic l, like in little or apple. (whereas it has been reported Historical variation

Accent (linguistics)
Prestige dialect
English English
Estuary English
General American
Prescription and description
Cockney

2007-12-31T07:50:00.001-08:00

Identity formation is the process of the development of the distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity (known as personal continuity) in a particular stage of life in which individual characteristics are possessed by which a person is recognized or known (such as the establishment of a reputation). This process defines an individual to others and themselves. Pieces of the entity's actual identity include a sense of continuity, a sense of uniqueness from others, and a sense of affiliation. Identity formation leads to a number issues of personal identity and an identity where the individual has some sort of comprehension of him or herself as a discrete, separate entity. This may be through individuation whereby the undifferentiated individual tends to become unique, or undergoes stages through which differentiated facets of a person's life tend toward becoming a more indivisible whole.

Theory of developmental stages
Self-concept or self-identity is the sum total of a being's knowledge and understanding of his or her self. The self-concept is different from self-consciousness, which is an awareness of one's self. Components of the self-concept include physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs and ideas. These components and attributes can not be condensed to the general concepts of self-image and the self-esteem.
Cultural identity is the (feeling of) identity of a group or culture, or of an individual as far as she/he is influenced by her/his belonging to a group or culture. Cultural identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with, identity politics. There are modern questions of culture that are transferred into questions of identity. An ethnic identity is the identification with a certain ethnicity, usually on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry. Recognition by others as a distinct ethnic group is often a contributing factor to developing this bond of identification. Ethnic groups are also often united by common cultural, behavioral, linguistic, ritualistic, or religious traits. Processes that result in the emergence of such identification are summarized as ethnogenesis. Various cultural studies and social theory investigate the question of cultural and ethnic identities. Cultural identity remarks upon: place, gender, race, history, nationality, sexual orientation, religious beliefs and ethnicity. National identity is an ethical and philosophical concept whereby all humans are divided into groups called nations. Members of a "nation" share a common identity, and usually a common origin, in the sense of ancestry, parentage or descent.
A religious identity is the set of beliefs and practices generally held by an individual, involving adherence to codified beliefs and rituals and study of ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, and mythology, as well as faith and mystic experience. The term "religious identity" refers to the personal practices related to communal faith and to rituals and communication stemming from such conviction.
In business, a professional identity is the "persona" of a professional which is designed to accord with and facilitate the attainment of business objectives. A professional identity comes into being when there is a philosophy which is manifest in a distinct corporate culture - the corporate personality. A business professional is a person in a profession with certain types of skills that sometimes requiring formal training or education. The career development of an individual focuses on how individuals manage their careers within and between organizations and how organizations structure the career progress of their members, can be tied into succession planning within some organizations.
In sociology, gender identity describes the gender with which a person identifies (i.e, whether one perceives oneself to be a man, a woman, or describes oneself in some less conventional way), but can also be used to refer to the gender that other people attribute to the individual on the basis of what they know from gender role indications (social behavior, clothing, hair style, etc.). Gender identity may be affected by a variety of social structures, including the person's ethnic group, employment status, religion or irreligion, and family.

Interpersonal identity development

Main article: Hegelian dialectic Self, other, and interaction
Individuals gain a social identity and group identity by their affiliation. This is from membership in various groups. These groups include, among various categories,:
The term collective identity is a sense of belonging to a group (the collective) that is so strong that a person who identifies with the group will dedicate his or her life to the group over individual identity: he or she will defend the views of the group and assume risks for the group, sometimes as great as loss of life. The cohesiveness of the collective goes beyond community, as the collective suffers the pain of grief from the loss of a member.

family
ethnic
occupation
friendship
dating
sex roles See also

2007-12-28T10:30:00.000-08:00

Keith Campbell may refer to:
Keith Campbell (biologist), English biologist involved in the study of cloning.
Keith Campbell (motorcyclist), Australian former Grand Prix motorcycle world champion.
Keith Campbell (philosopher)
Keith Campbell (cricketer), New Zealand cricketer
Keith Campbell (ice hockey)

2007-12-27T11:19:00.000-08:00

Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Yisra'el), officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל (help·info), Medinat Yisra'el; Arabic: دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrā'īl), is a country in Asia located on the southeastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It has borders with Lebanon in the north, Syria and Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania.
Djibouti · Egypt · Eritrea · Israel · Jordan · Saudi Arabia · Somalia · Sudan · Yemen
Egypt
Ethiopia

Ausubel, Natan (1964), The Book of Jewish Knowledge, New York, New York: Crown Publishers, ISBN 051709746X
Barton, John & Julie Bowden (2004), The Original Story: God, Israel and the World, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0802829007
Best, Anthony (2003), International History of the Twentieth Century, Routledge, ISBN 0415207398
Bregman, Ahron (2002), A History of Israel, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333676319
Cole, Tim (2003), Holocaust City: The Making of a Jewish Ghetto, Routledge, ISBN 0415929687
Crowdy, Terry (2006), The Enemy Within: A History of Espionage, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1841769339
Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975), Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, State University of New York Press, ISBN 087395291X
Gelvin, James L. (2005), The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521852897
Gilbert, Martin (2005), The Routledge Atlas Of The Arab-Israeli Conflict (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0415359007
Goldreich, Yair (2003), The Climate of Israel: Observation, Research and Application, Springer, ISBN 030647445X
Hamilton, Victor P. (1995), The Book of Genesis (2nd revised ed.), Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0802823092
Harkavy, Robert E. & Stephanie G. Neuman (2001), Warfare and the Third World, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312240120
Kornberg, Jacques (1993), Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism, Indiana University Press, ISBN 0253332036
Laqueur, Walter (2003), The History of Zionism, Tauris Parke Paperbacks, ISBN 1860649327
Lustick, Ian (1988), For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel, Council on Foreign Relations Press, ISBN 0876090366
Mazie, Steven (2006), Israel's Higher Law: Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State, Lexington Books, ISBN 0739114859
Morçöl, Göktuğ (2006), Handbook of Decision Making, CRC Press, ISBN 1574445480
Mowlana, Hamid; George Gerbner & Herbert I. Schiller (1992), Triumph of the Image: The Media's War in the Persian Gulf — A Global Perspective, Westview Press, ISBN 0813316103
Rosenzweig, Rafael (1997), The Economic Consequences of Zionism, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004091475
Rees, Matt (2004), Cain's Field: Faith, Fratricide, and Fear in the Middle East, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0743250478
Scharfstein, Sol (1996), Understanding Jewish History, KTAV Publishing House, ISBN 0881255459
Shamir, Michal & Alan Arian (2002), The Elections in Israel, 1999, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0791453154
Skolnik, Fred (2007), Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 9 (2nd ed.), Macmillian, ISBN 0028659287
Shindler, Colin (2002), The Land Beyond Promise: Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream, I.B.Tauris Publishers, ISBN 186064774X
Smith, Derek (2006), Deterring America: Rogue States and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521864658
Stendel, Ori (1997), The Arabs in Israel, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1898723230
Wenham, Gordon J. (1994), Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 2 (Genesis 16-50), ISBN 0849902010
(Hebrew) Israel Government Portal (with links to English, Arabic versions)
(Hebrew) Prime Minister's Office, official site (with links to English, Arabic versions)
(Hebrew) President of the State of Israel, official site (with links to English, Arabic versions)
The Knesset, official site of Israel's parliament
(Hebrew) The Supreme Court, official site (with links to English, Arabic versions)
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, official site
(Hebrew) Central Bureau of Statistics, official site (with links to English, Arabic versions)
Ministry of Tourism, official site
CIA World Factbook entry on Israel
Encyclopædia Britannica entry on Israel
BBC country profile of Israel
Library of Congress Country Studies entry on Israel
Columbia University library related to Israel
The Jerusalem Post, Israel's most popular English-language newspaper
Ynet News, based on Tel Aviv
(Hebrew) Israel Broadcasting Agency, state broadcasting network (with link to English version)
Israel travel guide from Wikitravel
Israel at WikiMapia
Israel at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Israel, holding maps related to Israel.

2007-12-26T11:47:00.001-08:00

Extreme Programming (or XP) is a software engineering methodology, the most prominent
Proponents of XP and agile methodologies in general regard ongoing changes to requirements as a natural, inescapable and desirable aspect of software development projects; they believe that adaptability to changing requirements at any point during the project life is a more realistic and better approach than attempting to define all requirements at the beginning of a project and then expending effort to control changes to the requirements.

History
Software development in the 1990s was shaped by two major influences: internally, object-oriented programming replaced procedural programming as the programming paradigm favored by some in the industry; externally, the rise of the Internet and the dot-com boom emphasized speed-to-market and company-growth as competitive business factors. Rapidly-changing requirements demanded shorter product life-cycles, and were often incompatible with traditional methods of software development.
The Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation project was started in order to determine the best way to use object technologies, using the payroll systems at Chrysler as the object of research, with Smalltalk as the language and GemStone as the data access layer. They brought in Kent Beck, a prominent Smalltalk practitioner, to do performance tuning on the system, but his role expanded as he noted several issues they were having with their development process. He took this opportunity to propose and implement some changes in their practices based on his work with his frequent collaborator, Ward Cunningham.
The first time I was asked to lead a team, I asked them to do a little bit of the things I thought were sensible, like testing and reviews. The second time there was a lot more on the line. I thought, "Damn the torpedoes, at least this will make a good article," [and] asked the team to crank up all the knobs to 10 on the things I thought were essential and leave out everything else. —Kent Beck
Beck invited Ron Jeffries to the project to help develop and refine these methods. Jeffries thereafter acted as a coach to instill the practices as habits in the C3 team.
Information about the principles and practices behind XP was disseminated to the wider world through discussions on the original Wiki, Cunningham's WikiWikiWeb. Various contributors discussed and expanded upon the ideas, and some spin-off methodologies resulted (see agile software development). Also, XP concepts have been explained, for several years, using a hyper-text system map on the XP website at "www.extremeprogramming.org" circa 1999 (website ^XPORG).
Beck edited a series of books on XP, beginning with his own Extreme Programming Explained (1999, ISBN 0-201-61641-6), spreading his ideas to a much larger, yet very receptive, audience. Authors in the series went through various aspects attending XP and its practices, even a book critical of the practices.

Origins
XP created quite a buzz in the late 1990s and early 2000s, seeing adoption in a number of environments radically different from its origins.
The high discipline required by the original practices often went by the wayside, causing certain practices to be deprecated or left undone on individual sites. Agile development practices have not stood still, and XP is still evolving, assimilating more lessons from experiences in the field. In the second edition of Extreme Programming Explained, Beck added more values and practices and differentiated between primary and corollary practices.

Current state
Extreme Programming Explained describes Extreme Programming as being:
The main aim of XP is to reduce the cost of change. In traditional system development methods (like SSADM) the requirements for the system are determined at the beginning of the development project and often fixed from that point on. This means that the cost of changing the requirements at a later stage (a common feature of software engineering projects) will be high.
XP sets out to reduce the cost of change by introducing basic values, principles and practices. By applying XP, a system development project should be more flexible with respect to changes.

An attempt to reconcile humanity and productivity
A mechanism for social change
A path to improvement
A style of development
A software development discipline Goal of XP
Extreme Programming initially recognized four values in 1999. A new value was added in the second edition of Extreme Programming Explained. The five values are:
Building software systems requires communicating system requirements to the developers of the system. In formal software development methodologies, this task is accomplished through documentation. Extreme Programming techniques can be viewed as methods for rapidly building and disseminating institutional knowledge among members of a development team. The goal is to give all developers a shared view of the system which matches the view held by the users of the system. To this end, Extreme Programming favors simple designs, common metaphors, collaboration of users and programmers, frequent verbal communication, and feedback.
Extreme Programming encourages starting with the simplest solution and refactoring to better ones. The difference between this approach and more conventional system development methods is the focus on designing and coding for the needs of today instead of those of tomorrow, next week, or next month. Proponents of XP acknowledge the disadvantage that this can sometimes entail more effort tomorrow to change the system; their claim is that this is more than compensated for by the advantage of not investing in possible future requirements that might change before they become relevant. Coding and designing for uncertain future requirements implies the risk of spending resources on something that might not be needed. Related to the "communication" value, simplicity in design and coding should improve the (quality of) communication. A simple design with very simple code could be easily understood by most programmers in the team.
Within Extreme Programming, feedback relates to different dimensions of the system development:
Feedback is closely related to communication and simplicity. Flaws in the system are easily communicated by writing a unit test that proves a certain piece of code will break. The direct feedback from the system tells programmers to recode this part. A customer is able to test the system periodically according to the functional requirements (aka user stories). To quote Kent Beck, "Optimism is an occupational hazard of programming, feedback is the treatment."
Several practices embody courage. One is the commandment to always design and code for today and not for tomorrow. This is an effort to avoid getting bogged down in design and requiring a lot of effort to implement anything else. Courage enables developers to feel comfortable with refactoring their code when necessary. This means reviewing the existing system and modifying it so that future changes can be implemented more easily. Another example of courage is knowing when to throw code away: courage to remove source code that is obsolete, no matter how much effort was used to create that source code. Also, courage means persistence: A programmer might be stuck on a complex problem for an entire day, then solve the problem quickly the next day, if only they are persistent.
The respect value manifests in several ways. In Extreme Programming, team members respect each other because programmers should never commit changes that break compilation, that make existing unit-tests fail, or that otherwise delay the work of their peers. Members respect their work by always striving for high quality and seeking for the best design for the solution at hand through refactoring.
Adopting four earlier values led to respect gained from others in team. Nobody on the team should feel unappreciated or ignored. This ensures high level of motivation and encourages loyalty toward the team, and the goal of the project. This value is very dependent upon the other values, and is very much oriented toward people in a team.

Communication
Simplicity
Feedback
Courage
Respect
Feedback from the system: by writing unit tests, or running periodic integration tests, the programmers have direct feedback from the state of the system after implementing changes.
Feedback from the customer: The functional tests (aka acceptance tests) are written by the customer and the testers. They will get concrete feedback about the current state of their system. This review is planned once in every two or three weeks so the customer can easily steer the development.
Feedback from the team: When customers come up with new requirements in the planning game the team directly gives an estimation of the time that it will take to implement. XP values
The principles that form the basis of XP are based on the values just described and are intended to foster decisions in a system development project. The principles are intended to be more concrete than the values and more easily translated to guidance in a practical situation.
Feedback is most useful if it is done rapidly. The time between an action and its feedback is critical to learning and making changes. In Extreme Programming, unlike traditional system development methods, contact with the customer occurs in small iterations. The customer has clear insight into the system that is being developed. He or she can give feedback and steer the development as needed.
Unit tests also contribute to the rapid feedback principle. When writing code, the unit test provides direct feedback as to how the system reacts to the changes one has made. If, for instance, the changes affect a part of the system that is not in the scope of the programmer who made them, that programmer will not notice the flaw. There is a large chance that this bug will appear when the system is in production.
Assuming simplicity is about treating every problem as if its solution were "extremely simple". Traditional system development methods say to plan for the future and to code for reusability. Extreme programming rejects these ideas.
The advocates of Extreme Programming say that making big changes all at once does not work. Extreme Programming applies incremental changes: for example, a system might have small releases every three weeks. By making many little steps the customer has more control over the development process and the system that is being developed.
The principle of embracing change is about not working against changes but embracing them. For instance, if at one of the iterative meetings it appears that the customer's requirements have changed dramatically, programmers are to embrace this and plan the new requirements for the next iteration.

Principles
XP describes four basic activities that are performed within the software development process.

Activities
The advocates of XP argue that the only truly important product of the system development process is code (a concept to which they give a somewhat broader definition than might be given by others). Without code you have nothing.
Coding can be drawing diagrams that will generate code, scripting a web-based system or coding a program that needs to be compiled.
Coding can also be used to figure out the most suitable solution. For instance, XP would advocate that faced with several alternatives for a programming problem, one should simply code all solutions and determine with automated tests (discussed in the next section) which solution is most suitable.
Coding can also help to communicate thoughts about programming problems. A programmer dealing with a complex programming problem and finding it hard to explain the solution to fellow programmers might code it and use the code to demonstrate what he or she means. Code, say the exponents of this position, is always clear and concise and cannot be interpreted in more than one way. Other programmers can give feedback on this code by also coding their thoughts.

Coding
One cannot be certain of anything unless one has tested it. Testing is not a perceived, primary need for the customer. A lot of software is shipped without proper testing and still works (more or less). In software development, XP says this means that one cannot be certain that a function works unless one tests it. This raises the question of defining what one can be uncertain about.

You can be uncertain whether what you coded is what you meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses Unit Tests. These are automated tests that test the code. The programmer will try to write as many tests he or she can think of that might break the code he or she is writing; if all tests run successfully then the coding is complete.
You can be uncertain whether what you meant is what you should have meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses acceptance tests based on the requirements given by the customer in the exploration phase of release planning. Testing
Programmers do not necessarily know anything about the business side of the system under development. The function of the system is determined by the business side. For the programmers to find what the functionality of the system should be, they have to listen to business.
Programmers have to listen "in the large": they have to listen to what the customer needs. Also, they have to try to understand the business problem, and to give the customer feedback about his or her problem, to improve the customer's own understanding of his or her problem.
Communication between the customer and programmer is further addressed in The Planning Game.

Listening
From the point of view of simplicity, one could say that system development doesn't need more than coding, testing and listening. If those activities are performed well, the result should always be a system that works. In practice, this will not work. One can come a long way without designing but at a given time one will get stuck. The system becomes too complex and the dependencies within the system cease to be clear.
One can avoid this by creating a design structure that organizes the logic in the system. Good design will avoid lots of dependencies within a system; this means that changing one part of the system will not affect other parts of the system.

Practices
Unstable Requirements: Proponents of Extreme Programming claim that by having the on-site customer request changes informally, the process becomes flexible, and saves the cost of formal overhead. Critics of XP claim this can lead to costly rework and project scope creep beyond what was previously agreed or funded.
User Conflicts: Change control boards are a sign that there are potential conflicts in project objectives and constraints between multiple users. XP's expedited methodology is somewhat dependent on programmers being able to assume a unified client viewpoint so the programmer can concentrate on coding rather than documentation of compromise objectives and constraints. This also applies when multiple programming organizations are involved, particularly organizations which compete for shares of projects.
Other Aspects: Other controversial aspects of Extreme Programming include:
Dependence upon all other aspects of XP: "XP is like a ring of poisonous snakes, daisy-chained together. All it takes is for one of them to wriggle loose, and you've got a very angry, poisonous snake heading your way." was introduced as an evolution of XP. It brings ability to work in big and distributed teams. It now has 23 practices and flexible changeable values. As it is a new member of Agile family, there is not enough data to prove its usability, however it claims to be an answer to XP's imperfections.
Hybrid/Unified Methodologies: Other authors have tried to reconcile XP with the older methods in order to form a unified methodology. Some of these XP sought to replace, such as the waterfall method; example: Project Lifecycles: Waterfall, Rapid Application Development, and All That.
JPMorgan Chase & Co. tried combining XP with the computer programming methodologies of Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI), and Six Sigma. They found that the three systems reinforced each other well, leading to better development, and did not mutually contradict, see Extreme Programming (XP) Six Sigma CMMI.
Finally, XP is not the only controversial methodology, because XP is a response to the controversy and criticisms about other methods used in software development.

Requirements are expressed as automated acceptance tests rather than specification documents.
Requirements are defined incrementally, rather than trying to get them all in advance.
Software developers are required to work in pairs.
There is no Big Design Up Front. Most of the design activity takes place on the fly and incrementally, starting with "the simplest thing that could possibly work" and adding complexity only when it's required by failing tests. Critics fear this would result in more re-design effort than only re-designing when requirements change.
A customer representative is attached to the project. This role can become a single-point-of-failure for the project, and some people have found it to be a source of stress. Also, there is the danger of micro-management by a non-technical representative trying to dictate the use of technical software features and architecture. Application of Extreme Programming

Software Development Rhythms
Software engineering
Agile software development
Extreme project management
Extreme Programming Practices
Pair Programming
Toyota Production System
List of software development philosophies

2007-12-25T11:33:00.001-08:00

A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables which relates the values of the function itself and of its derivatives of various orders. Differential equations play a prominent role in engineering, physics, economics, and other disciplines.

Introduction
The study of differential equations is a wide field in both pure and applied mathematics. Pure mathematicians study the types and properties of differential equations, such as whether or not solutions exist, and should they exist, whether they are unique. Applied mathematicians emphasize differential equations from applications, and in addition to existence/uniqueness questions, are also concerned with rigorously justifying methods for approximating solutions. Physicists and engineers are usually more interested in computing approximate solutions to differential equations, and are typically less interested in justifications for whether these approximations really are close to the actual solutions. These solutions are then used to simulate celestial motions, simulate neurons, design bridges, automobiles, aircraft, sewers, etc. Often, these equations do not have closed form solutions and are solved using numerical methods.
Mathematicians also study weak solutions (relying on weak derivatives), which are types of solutions that do not have to be differentiable everywhere. This extension is often necessary for solutions to exist, and it also results in more physically reasonable properties of solutions, such as shocks in hyperbolic (or wave) equations.
The study of the stability of solutions of differential equations is known as stability theory.

Types of differential equations
The theory of differential equations is closely related to the theory of difference equations, in which the coordinates assume only discrete values, and the relationship involves values of the unknown function or functions and values at nearby coordinates. Many methods to compute numerical solutions of differential equations or study the properties of differential equations involve approximation of the solution of a differential equation by the solution of a corresponding difference equation.

Connection to difference equations
A large number of fundamental laws of physics and chemistry can be formulated as differential equations. In biology and economics differential equations are used to model the behavior of complex systems. The mathematical theory of differential equations first developed together with the sciences where the equations had originated and where the results found application. However, diverse problems, sometimes originating in quite distinct scientific fields, may give rise to identical differential equations. Whenever this happens, mathematical theory behind the equations can be viewed as a unifying principle behind diverse phenomena. As an example, consider propagation of light and sound in the atmosphere, and of waves on the surface of a pond. All of them may be described by the same second order partial differential equation, the wave equation, which allows us to think of light and sound as forms of waves, much like familiar waves in the water. Conduction of heat, whose theory was brilliantly developed by Joseph Fourier, is governed by another second order partial differential equation, the heat equation. It turned out that many diffusion processes, while seemingly different, are described by the same equation; Black-Scholes equation in finance is for instance, related to the heat equation.

Famous differential equations

Picard-Lindelöf theorem on existence and uniqueness of solutions

2007-12-24T11:42:00.001-08:00

All India Institute of Medical Sciences
All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) (created 1956) is a medical college in India. It is located in New Delhi. It has been consistently ranked the top medical college in India by India Today.
It is one of India's Institutes of National Importance, a distinguished category of premier institutions including the IITs, Indian Statistical Institute, ICAR etc.

Academics

Admission
Every year AIIMS accepts 45 students, of which 33 belong to General Category and 11 belong to the reserved category (SC/ST) and 1 orthopedic physically handicapped, based on the results of an all-India entrance examination for its MBBS program. The number of students who take the entrance exam every year varies from 70,000 to 80,000. Five international students (nominated by Government of India) complete the class size of 50.
AIIMS also specializes in paramedical and basic science training.

MBBS course
There are about 42 speciality post-graduate courses conducted at AIIMS. The entry is through a nationwide competitive examination held every six months. These courses are highly coveted by the medical graduates across the country because of the institution's excellent medical services, exposure to unusual & referred cases and excellent opportunities for research.

Post-graduate courses
AIIMS has been ranked repeatedly at the top in its field in annual surveys (starting in 1997) published by India Today.

Ranking
AIIMS was originally built as a Superspeciality

Integrating clinics and research
As per the AIIMS Citizen's Charter,

Medical services
There is a separate cardiothoracic and neurosciences centre (CNC) offering superspeciality level patient care, training and research in the respective fields.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Centre for Ophthalmic Sciences is a 300 bed ophthalmic (eyes) speciality centre devoted to the education, research and patient care. It is designated as the apex eye referral centre for India and is the WHO collaborating centre for ophthalmic programs.
Recently Dr. BR Ambedkar Institute Rotary Cancer Hospital's construction has been completed. It specializes in medical, radiation and surgical oncology.
Jai Prakash Narayan Apex Trauma Centre is the latest addition to the existing facilities. It is India's first full-fledged trauma centre to treat victims of trauma. It is located about 1 KM west from the main campus.

Speciality Centres at AIIMS
AIIMS is a residential university where the faculty members, staff and students live on either the main campus or one of the several campuses which form a part of the Institution. There are five hostels for men undergraduate students and a single hostel available for women undergraduate students. These six hostels together can accommodate 850 students. For Post-graduate students, there are three hostels available for the men students and a single hostel for the women students. Additional hostels for Nursing students and Post-graduate students are available at a facility in the Masjid Moth area, situated near to the main AIIMS campus.
Students of AIIMS involve themselves in extra-academic movements, including Pulse, the annual, inter-college festival hosted by AIIMS.

Residential facilities

AIIMS is the first Indian center to perform a successful cardiac transplant. The surgery was performed by Dr.P Venugopal, the current director of AIIMS in 1994. Achievements

Controversies
Prior to Supreme court judgment of 25th Aug, 2001 and changes in institutional quota, AIIMS was criticised for the way 33% of Post Graduation Seats were reserved for those who complete their MBBS in AIIMS. The quota has been quashed by the Supreme Court as per its Judgment in the year 2001.

Institutional Quota

Main articles: Indian anti-reservation protests, 2006 and Reservation in India Notable faculty and Alumni

PGI Chandigarh
Sanjay Gandhi PGIMS Lucknow
NEIGRIHMS Shillong
JIPMER

2007-12-23T11:45:00.001-08:00

Andreas Palaiologos (or Palaeologus) (1453 - 1503) de jure Byzantine emperor and Despot of Morea from 1465 until death in 1503.
He was the nephew of Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Byzantine Emperor of Constantinople. After Constantine was defeated and killed by the forces of Mehmed II on May 29, 1453, Andreas continued to live in Morea, which was ruled independently by Andreas' father Thomas Palaiologos, the younger brother of Constantine, until 1460. At this time he escaped to the Italian peninsula following an Ottoman invasion. Before entering Italy, Thomas and all his children made the conversion to the Roman Catholic religion. When his father died in 1465, Andreas stayed in Italy under the protection of the Papal States.
During his lifetime, Andreas is believed to have wasted enormous sums of money given to him by the Pope. However, modern historians now believe that the money received from the Pope was only enough for a meager standard of living.
Looking for money and a better life, Andreas tried to sell the rights to the Byzantine crown, which had fallen to him de jure since the death of his father Thomas. Charles VIII of France originally agreed to purchase the rights of succession from Andreas in 1494. However Charles predeceased him on April 7, 1498.
Andreas' younger brother Manuel Palaiologos arranged a deal with the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II, exchanging his rights to the Byzantine throne for a comfortable pension.
Andreas died a pauper in 1502. According to his will his heirs were Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. While most scholars believe Andreas left no descendants of his own, Donald M. Nicol's The Immortal Emperor recognises a Constantine Palaiologos who served in the Papal Guard and a Maria who married Russian noble Mihail Vasilivich as possible offspring of Andreas.
References
Jonathan Harris, Greek Émigrés in the West, 1400-1520, Camberley: Porphyrogenitus, 1995. ISBN 1 871328 11 X
Jonathan Harris 'A worthless prince? Andreas Palaeologus in Rome, 1465-1502', Orientalia Christiana Periodica 61 (1995), 537-54
Donald M. Nicol, The Immortal Emperor, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 115-22. ISBN 0 521 41456 3.
Steven Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople 1453, Cambridge University Press, 1965, pp. 183-4. ISBN 0 521 09573 5

2007-12-22T12:05:00.001-08:00

Author, speaker and management thinker Gerard Fairtlough trained initially as a biochemist at Cambridge University. He worked for 25 years in the Royal Dutch Shell group, where he spent the last 5 years as Chief Executive of Shell Chemicals UK.
In 1980 he founded the biopharmaceuticals firm Celltech and remained its chief executive until 1990. Since that time he has been involved in the formation of a number of high-tech businesses. Gerard has served as an advisor to several UK government and academic institutions. He has been Specialist Advisor to the British House of Commons Select Committee on Science and Technology, Chair of the Advisory Panel on Science Policy Research at the University of Sussex, and a member of the UK Science and Engineering Council.
Gerard Fairtlough has developed and elaborated Triarchy Theory and is the author of The Three Ways of Getting Things Done: Hierarchy, Heterarchy & Responsible Autonomy in Organisations, Creative Compartments: A Design for Future Organisation, and co-author with Julie Allan and Barbara Heinzen of The Power of the Tale: Using Narratives for Organisational Success. He has also written extensively on the theory and practice of organization design and management and of innovation.

2007-12-21T07:48:00.001-08:00

October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 75 days remaining.

Events

1253 - Ivo of Kermartin, French saint (d. 1303)
1563 - Jodocus Hondius, Flemish cartographer (d. 1611)
1577 - Cristofano Allori, Italian painter (d. 1621)
1582 - Johann Gerhard, German Lutheran leader (d. 1637)
1623 - Francis Turretin, Swiss theologian (d. 1687)
1688 - Domenico Zipoli, Italian composer (d. 1726)
1711 - Jupiter Hammon, American writer
1719 - Jacques Cazotte, French writer (d. 1792)
1811 - Albertus van Raalte, Dutch/American religious leader (d. 1876)
1813 - Georg Büchner, German playwright (d. 1837)
1817 - Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Indian Muslim intellectual (d. 1898)
1864 - Elinor Glyn, British writer (d. 1943)
1865 - James Rudolph Garfield, American politician (d. 1950)
1886 - Spring Byington, American actress (d. 1971)
1890 - Roy Kilner, English cricketer (d. 1928)
1898 - Shinichi Suzuki, Japanese violin teacher (d. 1998)
1898 - Simon Vestdijk, Dutch writer (d. 1971)
1900 - Jean Arthur, American actress (d. 1991)
1902 - Irene Ryan, American actress (d. 1973)
1903 - Nathanael West, American writer (d. 1940)
1906 - Paul Derringer, American baseball player (d. 1987)
1908 - Red Rolfe, American baseball player (d. 1969)
1912 - Pope John Paul I (d. 1978)
1912 - Jack Owens, The Cruising Crooner, American singer/songwriter (d. 1982)
1914 - Jerry Siegel, American cartoonist, co-creator of Superman (d. 1996)
1915 - Arthur Miller, American playwright (d. 2005)
1917 - Sumner Locke Elliott, Australian (later American) novelist (d. 1991)
1918 - Rita Hayworth, American actress (d. 1987)
1919 - Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov, Russian physicist
1920 - Miguel Delibes, Spanish writer
1920 - Montgomery Clift, American actor (d. 1966)
1921 - Tom Poston, American actor and comedian (d. 2007)
1921 - Maria Gorokhovskaya, Soviet gymnast (d. 2001)
1922 - Pierre Juneau, Canadian film and broadcast executive
1922 - Luiz Bonfá, Brazilian composer (d. 2001)
1923 - Charles McClendon, American football coach (d. 2001)
1923 - Barney Kessel, American musician (d. 2004)
1926 - Julie Adams, American film actress
1930 - Robert Atkins, American nutritionist (d. 2003)
1930 - Jimmy Breslin, American writer
1930 - Joe Erskine, American welterweight boxer and long distance runner
1931 - Ernst Hinterberger, Austrian writer
1933 - Jeanine Deckers, Belgian nun (d. 1985)
1936 - Hiroo Kanamori, Japanese seismologist
1938 - Evel Knievel, American daredevil
1940 - Peter Stringfellow, British nightclub owner
1941 - Earl Thomas Conley, American singer
1941 - Jim Seals American singer (Seals and Crofts)
1942 - Gary Puckett, American musician
1946 - Sir Cameron Mackintosh, British stage producer
1946 - Adam Michnik, Polish activist
1946 - Bob Seagren, American athlete
1946 - Michael Hossack, American musician (The Doobie Brothers)
1947 - Gene Green, American politician
1947 - Michael McKean, American actor
1948 - Margot Kidder, Canadian actress
1948 - George Wendt, American actor
1948 - Robert Jordan, American novelist
1950 - Howard Rollins, American actor (d. 1996)
1956 - Mae Jemison, American astronaut
1957 - Steve McMichael, American football player
1958 - Alan Jackson, American singer and songwriter
1959 - Ron Drummond, American writer
1959 - Mark Peel, Australian historian and academic
1959 - Russell Gilbert, Australian comedian
1960 - Rob Marshall, American director
1960 - Guy Henry, English actor
1962 - Mike Judge, Ecuadoran-born cartoonist
1963 - Norm MacDonald, Canadian comedian
1965 - Aravinda de Silva, Sri Lankan cricketer
1966 - Mark Gatiss, English actor
1968 - Ziggy Marley, Jamaican musician
1969 - Ernie Els, South African golfer
1969 - Rick Mercer, Canadian comedian
1970 - Anil Kumble, Indian cricketer
1970 - John Mabry, American baseball player
1971 - Chris Kirkpatrick, American singer ('N Sync)
1972 - Eminem, American rapper
1972 - Tarkan, Turkish singer
1972 - Wyclef Jean, Haitian-born singer
1972 - Joe McEwing, American baseball player
1974 - Matthew Macfadyen, British actor
1974 - John Rocker, American baseball player
1975 - Francis Bouillon, American hockey player
1976 - Sebastián Abreu, Uruguayan footballer
1977 - Dudu Aouate, Israeli footballer
1979 - Marcela Bovio, Mexican singer and violinist (Elfonía, Stream of Passion)
1979 - Kimi Räikkönen, Finnish race car driver
1979 - Kostas Tsartsaris, Greek basketball player
1982 - Nick Riewoldt, Australian rules footballer.
1983 - Daniel Booko, American actor
1983 - Ivan Saenko, Russian football player
1984 - Jelle Klaasen, Dutch darts player
1984 - Chris Lowell, American actor
1987 - Jarosław Fojut, Polish footballer
1992 - Matthew Crane, British operatic singer
1995 - Alexandria, McKenzie and Megan Calabrese, American triplets and actresses

2007-12-20T07:50:00.001-08:00

The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was the aviation component of the United States Army primarily during World War II. The title of Army Air Forces succeeded the prior name of Army Air Corps in June 1941 during preparation for expected combat in what came to be known as World War II. Although countries such as ally Great Britain had a separate Air Force, the Army Air Forces were part of the US Army and a direct precursor to the U.S. Air Force. The USAAF formally existed between 1941 and 1947 as an autonomous part of the U.S. Army, co-equal to the Army Ground Forces and Army Service Forces.

Lineage of the United States Air Force
The USAAF had its roots in a turn-of-the century effort at technology assessment of the progress of aviation. The issuance of a patent to the Wright Brothers in 1906, and the interest of President Theodore Roosevelt brought about the creation on August 1, 1907, of the Aeronautical Division of the Signal Corps, headed by Captain Charles deForest Chandler, established to develop all forms of flying. In 1908, the corps ordered a dirigible balloon and contracted with the Wrights for an airplane. Despite a crash that destroyed the first model, the Wright plane was delivered in 1909. The inventors then began to teach a few enthusiastic young officers to fly.
The progress of U.S. military aviation was slow in its early years. Congress voted the first appropriation for military aviation in 1911 and expanded the service into an Aviation Section in 1914. A provisional squadron was formed to support the Punitive Expedition under General John J. Pershing on the Mexican border in 1916 but failed, largely because of poor equipment unsuited to the harsh expeditionary conditions and bad maintenance.
The importance of military aviation was established with its role in Europe during World War I. At the time of America's declaration of war against Germany on April 6, 1917, the Aviation Section was marginal at best. France asked the United States to provide an air force of 4,500 airplanes and 50,000 men, and with more enthusiasm than wisdom, Secretary of War Newton D. Baker asked for and received $640 million from Congress for aviation. The result was chaos. By May of 1918, it was clear that the Signal Corps was overtasked in the aviation mission. The War Department then set up a Air Service consisting at first of two agencies reporting directly to the Secretary of War: one under a civilian, to deal with the manufacturers, and one under a military officer, to train and organize units. In August President Woodrow Wilson appointed John D. Ryan, Second Assistant Secretary of War, to consolidate the whole under the aegis of the Air Service.
As a result of the important role air power had played in the war, a movement developed during the 1920s and 1930s to create an independent air force. The model for this was the Royal Air Force in Great Britain, which early in 1918 had combined its Army and Navy air arms into the RAF. However the U.S. Army's leaders viewed the airplane primarily as merely a weapon for supporting infantry, and gave the Air Service a branch status comparable to that of the field artillery, responsible for procuring equipment and training units. Local ground forces commanders, none of them aviators, directed the aviation units. A series of boards and commissions studied and restudied the question of air organization, with no result other than approval of the name change to the U.S. Army Air Corps in mid-1926.
The Air Corps Act of 1926 changed the name of the Air Service to the Air Corps, "thereby strengthening the conception of military aviation as an offensive, striking arm rather than an auxiliary service," and created an additional Assistant Secretary of War to help foster military aeronautics. Other provisions required that all flying units be commanded by rated personnel and that flight pay be continued, but the position of the air arm within the Department of War remained essentially the same as before. Perhaps the most promising aspect of the act for the Air Corps was the authorization to carry out a five-year expansion program, though inadequate funding limited growth to organizational changes and aircraft development.
The formulation of theories of strategic bombing (long-range bombardment intended to destroy an enemy nation's war-making potential) at the Air Corps Tactical School gave new impetus to arguments for an independent air force. Despite what it perceived as obstruction from the Army General Staff, much of which was attributable to a shortage of funds, the Air Corps made great strides during the 1930s. A doctrine emerged that stressed precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed long-range aircraft, and the Air Corps was given the mission of coastal defense.
The next major step toward a separate air force occurred in March 1935 with centralization of all combat air units within the United States into a single command called General Headquarters Air Force. GHQ Air Force took control of aviation operations away from corps area commanders, which had controlled them since 1920, and organized them administratively into four geographical districts headquartered in Los Angeles, Seattle, New York, and Tampa, and created a strike force of three wings.
GHQ Air Force was small in comparison to European air forces. Lines of authority were difficult as GHQ Air Force controlled only its combat units, with the Air Corps still responsible for all support functions, and the corps area commanders still in charge of all airfields and the support personnel manning them. The commanders of GHQ Air Force and the Air Corps, Major generals Frank Andrews and Oscar Westover, clashed philosophically over the direction in which the air arm was heading, adding to the difficulties.

Origins of the air arm
The likelihood of U.S. participation in World War II prompted the most radical reorganization of the aviation branch in its history, developing a structure that gave it total autonomy by March 1942. On June 20, 1941, under a revision by the War Department of Army Regulation 95-5, Major General Henry H. Arnold, then Chief of the Air Corps, assumed the title of Chief of Army Air Forces, creating an echelon of command over all military aviation components. The AAF was directly under the orders of the Chief of Staff of the Army, General George C. Marshall.
Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a strong proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence after the war. Soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, in recognition of importance of the role of the Army Air Forces, Arnold was given a seat on the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the planning staff that served as the focal point of American strategic planning during the war, so that the United States would have an air representative in staff talks with their British counterparts on the Combined Chiefs, and in effect gained equality with Marshall.
GHQ Air Force was replaced by the Air Force Combat Command, and its four geographical districts were converted in January 1941 into numbered air forces, with a subordinate organization of 54 groups. Organizationally, the Army Air Forces was created as a higher command echelon encompassing both Air Force Combat Command and the Army Air Corps, thus bringing all of the air arm under a centralized command for the first time. Yet these reforms were only temporary, lasting just nine months as the air arm streamlined in preparation for war, with a goal of centralized planning and decentralized execution of operations.
Executive Order 9082 [1] changed Arnold's title to "Commanding General, Army Air Forces" on March 9, 1942, making him co-equal with the commanding generals of the new Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply, the other two parts of the Army of the United States. War Department Circular No. 59 reorganized the Army Air Forces, disbanding the Combat Command (formerly GHQAF) and changing the Air Corps to a non-organizational combat arm, eliminating their layer of command. Replacing them were eleven numbered air forces (later raised to sixteen) and six major commands (which became eight in January 1943: Flying Training, Technical Training, Troop Carrier, Air Transport, Materiel, Air Service, Proving Ground, and Anti-Submarine Commands). In July 1943 Flying Training and Technical Training Commands merged into a single Training Command.
As a result of its exponential growth during World War II, the Army Air Forces became the world's largest and most powerful air force. The expansion from the Air Corps of 1939, with 20,000 men and 2,320 planes (a limit set in 1934), to the autonomous AAF of 1944, with almost 2.4 million personnel and 80,000 aircraft, was a remarkable feat. Robert A. Lovett, the Assistant Secretary of War for Air, together with Arnold, presided over an increase of personnel and equipment greater than for either the ground Army or the Navy, while at the same time dispatching combat air forces to theaters of war all over the globe.

Growth of the US Army Air Forces in World War II, aircraft
SOURCE: Army Air Forces Statistical Digest (World War II), Table 84

Growth of the US Army Air Forces in World War II, Personnel
SOURCE: Army Air Forces Statistical Digest (World War II), Table 4

Creation and expansion of the Army Air Forces
As Arnold's staff saw it, the first priority in the war was to launch a strategic bombing offensive in support of the RAF against Germany. The Eighth Air Force, sent to England in 1942, took on that job. After a slow and often costly effort to bring the necessary strength to bear, joined in 1944 by the Fifteenth Air Force stationed in Italy, strategic bombing finally began to get results, and by the end of the war, the German economy had been dispersed and pounded to rubble.
Tactical air forces supported the ground forces in the Mediterranean and European theaters, where the enemy found Allied air supremacy a constant frustration. In the war against Japan, General Douglas MacArthur made his advance along New Guinea by leap-frogging his air forces forward and using amphibious forces to open up new bases. The AAF also supported Admiral Chester Nimitz's aircraft carriers in their island-hopping across the Central Pacific and assisted Allied forces in Burma and China.
Arnold directly controlled the Twentieth Air Force, equipped with the new long-range B-29 Superfortresses used for bombing Japan's home islands, first from China and then from the Marianas. Devastated by fire-raids, Japan was so weakened by August of 1945 that Arnold believed neither the atomic bomb nor the planned invasion would be necessary to win the war. The fact that AAF B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nevertheless, demonstrated what air power could do in the future. The Strategic Bombing Survey provided ammunition for the leaders of the AAF in the postwar debates over armed forces unification and national strategy.
Main Article: United States aircraft production during World War II

Source: U.S. Air Force Historical Studies Office War strategy
By the end of World War II, the USAAF had created sixteen numbered air forces (First through Fifteenth and Twentieth) distributed world-wide to prosecute the war and defend the Americas, plus a Zone of the Interior general air force within the continental United States to support the whole. An additional eight air divisions served as an additional layer of command for the vast organization, capable of acting independently if the need arose. Several of these air forces and divisions grew out of earlier commands—for example, the Eighth Air Force was originally VIII Bomber Command, then later had its designation again assigned to the command when that organization was discontinued——as the service expanded in size and organization, with multiple lower tiers added and higher echelons such as United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF) in Europe and U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific became necessary to control the whole.
Several air forces were created de novo as the service expanded during the war. Inclusive within the air forces and divisions were a total of 91 administrative command headquarters called wings, denoted as bombardment, fighter reconnaissance, training or composite as defined by their functional role. Larger support organizations, such as Air Transport Command (successor to the pre-war Air Corps Ferrying Command) remained under the control of Headquarters Army Air Forces, while their operational organizations (wings, groups, and squadrons) were assigned to the numbered air forces.
In August 1945, the U.S. Strategic Air Forces became the United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE). In 1947, USAFE became a component of the newly-created United States Air Force. From 1948–49, the unit was responsible for the Berlin Airlift.
While officially the air arm had become the Army Air Forces, colloquially the term Air Corps persisted among the public as well as veteran airmen, whose branch remained the Air Corps; in addition, the singular "Air Force" often crept into popular use, reflected by usage of the term "Air Force Combat Command" in 1941-42. This misnomer crept onto official recruiting posters (see image on right) and was important in promoting the idea of an "Air Force" as an independent service.

The sixteen air forces

First Air Force
Second Air Force
Third Air Force
Fourth Air Force
Fifth Air Force
Sixth Air Force
Seventh Air Force
Eighth Air Force
Ninth Air Force
Tenth Air Force
Eleventh Air Force
Twelfth Air Force
Thirteenth Air Force
Fourteenth Air Force
Fifteenth Air Force
Twentieth Air Force List of numbered air forces
Following the immense buildup in aviation infrastructure and personnel during the war, and in recognition of the tremendous new importance and strength of airpower, then President Harry S. Truman created the United States Department of the Air Force in 1947. This legislation renamed the aviation military group again to the United States Air Force, elevating it to a truly separate branch of the U.S. military. The Key West Agreement outlined the air assets that each service would be permitted to maintain, with the Air Force getting the bulk of strategic, tactical and transport aircraft. The Army was permitted light aircraft for reconnaissance, the transport of general officers and other miscellaneous duties, under the auspices of Army Aviation. This state-of-affairs lasted until the 1960's, when the advent of the jet-turbine helicopter and the concept of air-mobile brigades increased the size and scope of Army Aviation once again.

People who served in the United States Army Air Forces
To denote the special training and qualifications required for membership in the USAAF, the following military badges (known colloquially but ubiquitously throughout the service as "wings") were authorized for wear by members of the Army Air Forces during World War II:
These aviation qualification badges were typically worn in full three-inch size on service or dress uniforms, but two-inch versions were also authorized for less-formal shirt wear. Most aviation badges were made of sterling silver or were given a silver finish, and various devices were used to attach them to uniforms. These included the traditional pin and safety catch and, later, clutch-back fasteners. Most USAAF badges of World War II are now obsolete, having been superseded by later designs, and further information on them can be found under Obsolete badges of the United States military.

Aircrew Badge
Aircraft Observer Badge
Auxiliary Pilot Badge
Aviator Badge
Balloon Observer Badge
Balloon Pilot Badge
Bombardier Badge
Command Pilot Badge
Flight Engineer Badge
Flight Instructor Badge
Flight Nurse Badge
Flight Surgeon Badge
Glider Pilot Badge
Gunner Badge
Liaison Pilot Badge
Navigator Badge
Observer Badge
Pilot Badge
Senior Balloon Pilot Badge
Senior Pilot Badge
Service Pilot Badge
Technical Observer Badge
Technician Badge
Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) Badge

2007-12-19T08:28:00.001-08:00

A tool or device is a piece of equipment which typically provides a mechanical advantage in accomplishing a physical task, or provides an ability that is not naturally available to the user of a tool. The most basic tools are simple machines. For example, a crowbar simply functions as a lever. The further out from the pivot point, the more force is transmitted along the lever. When particularly intended for domestic use, a tool is often called a utensil.
Philosophers once thought that only humans used tools, and often defined humans as tool-using animals.
Some tools can also serve as weapons, such as a hammer or a knife. Similarly, people can use weapons, such as explosives, as tools.

Functions of tools
Often, by design or coincidence, a tool may share key functional attributes with one or more other tools. In this case, some tools can substitute for other tools, either as a make-shift solution or as a matter of practical efficiency. "One tool does it all" is a motto of some importance for workers who cannot practically carry every specialized tool to the location of every work task. Tool substitution may be divided broadly into two classes: substitution "by-design", or "multi-purpose" use, and substitution as make-shift. In many cases, the designed secondary functions of tools are not widely known. As an example of the former, many wood-cutting hand saws integrate a carpenter's square by incorporating a specially shaped handle which allows 90° and 45° angles to be marked by aligning the appropriate part of the handle with an edge and scribing along the back edge of the saw. The latter is illustrated by the saying "All tools can be used as hammers." Nearly all tools can be repurposed to function as a hammer, even though very few tools are intentionally designed for it.

Tool substitution

A Multitool is a hand tool that incorporates several tools into a single, portable device.
Lineman's pliers incorporate a gripper and cutter, and are often used secondarily as a hammer.
Hand saws often incorporate the functionality of the carpenter's square in the right-angle between the blade's dull edge and the saw's handle.

2007-12-18T08:20:00.001-08:00

William Erskine (8 November 1773 - 28 May 1852) was a Scottish orientalist and historian.
The son of David Erskine and his wife Jean Melvin, he was born in Edinburgh. He attended the Royal High School, received a doctorate in law from Edinburgh University, and went to Bombay (now Mumbai) India in 1804 where he was master in equity in the recorder's court of Bombay. He married Maitland Mackintosh, daughter of James Mackintosh by his first wife Katherine Stuart in 1809 in Madras (now Chennai) and they had two daughters, Mary and Frances, the latter of whom married the statistician and civil servant Thomas Farrer, 1st Baron Farrer. Erskine wrote principally on mediaeval India, but he also completed John Malcolm's biography of Clive of India after Malcolm's death and translated the memoirs of Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Babur, Emperor of Hindustan. He was removed from office in 1823 after being accused of defalcation and for many of his later years resided in Edinburgh. He was Provost of St Andrews, 1836–1869. Alumni of the University of Edinburgh

2007-12-17T11:44:00.000-08:00

Petrus Apianus (April 16, 1495 – April 21, 1552; also known as Peter Apian) was a German humanist, famous for his works in mathematics, astronomy and cartography.
The Apianus crater on the Moon was named in his honour.

Life and work

Cosmographicus liber, Landshut 1524.
Ein newe und wolgegründete underweisung aller Kauffmanns Rechnung in dreyen Büchern, mit schönen Regeln und fragstücken begriffen, Ingolstadt 1527. A handbook of commercial arithmetic; depicted in the painting The Ambassadors by Hans Holbein the Younger.
Ein kurtzer bericht der Observation unnd urtels des jüngst erschinnen Cometen..., Ingolstadt 1532. On his comet observations.
Quadrans Apiani astronomicus, Ingolstadt 1532. On sextants.
Horoscopion Apiani..., Ingolstadt 1533. On sundials.
Instrument Buch..., Ingolstadt 1533. A scientific book on astronomical instruments in German.
Instrumentum primi mobilis, Nuremberg 1534. On trigonometry, contains sine tables.
Astronomicum Caesareum, Ingolstadt 1540.

李昆澤

2007-12-16T22:26:00.000-08:00

李昆澤，台灣政治人物，輔仁大學歷史系學士、國立中山大學政治學碩士，民主進步黨籍立法委員。

經歷

現任高雄市長陳菊的外甥。
家庭

2007年民進黨黨內初選，因對手林進興立委因案被停權，遞補民進黨高雄市第三選區立委候選人。
其為新潮流派系。新潮流為保高雄市最後一席立委之地，力保力挺到底。
爭議

服務處：高雄市三民區大順二路899號
政治

立法院
線上大國民 Mighty People Online - 立法委員資料 – 李昆澤

2007-12-16T11:26:00.001-08:00

Oadby and Wigston is a local government district and borough in the English county of Leicestershire. It is composed of the areas of Oadby, Wigston Magna and South Wigston. It is predominantly urban, and runs directly into Leicester, to the north-west.
It is part of the Harborough constituency, and was formed in 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, by the merger of the Oadby and Wigston urban districts.
It is twinned with the towns of Maromme and Norderstedt.
Amber Valley • Ashfield • Bassetlaw • Blaby • Bolsover • Boston • Broxtowe • Charnwood • Chesterfield • Corby • Daventry • Derby • Derbyshire Dales • East Lindsey • East Northamptonshire • Erewash • Gedling • Harborough • High Peak • Hinckley and Bosworth • Kettering • Leicester • Lincoln • Mansfield • Melton • Newark and Sherwood • Northampton • North East Derbyshire • North Kesteven • North West Leicestershire • Nottingham • Oadby and Wigston • Rushcliffe • Rutland • South Derbyshire • South Holland • South Kesteven • South Northamptonshire • Wellingborough • West Lindsey
Counties with multiple districts: Derbyshire • Leicestershire • Lincolnshire • Northamptonshire • Nottinghamshire

2007-12-15T11:40:00.000-08:00

James are an indie rock band from Manchester, England, formed in 1981. After an uphill struggle throughout the 1980s, they went on to become one of the most consistently successful acts of the 1990s, scoring a string of hit singles during the decade including "Sit Down" and "Laid". Following the departure of lead singer Tim Booth in 2001, the band became inactive, although no split was ever officially confirmed. In January 2007, the group announced that they were reforming to play some live shows and that they had been writing new material. A new website [1] was launched, confirming an initial 5 dates in the UK in April. Tim Booth's own site also confirmed the reformation. [2] [3] On 16th March, James played a secret comeback gig at Hoxton Square Bar & Kitchen, in front of an audience of just 250. On 30th April 2007, James played a further secret gig in front of 300 fans at the Club Academy in the Manchester University Student Union, aka The Cellar Bar, poignant because this is where Tim Booth first met Jim Glennie back in 1981. A third secret gig was held again at Hoxton Square Bar & Kitchen on 25th June 2007. And a fourth secret gig was performed on 6th July 2007 at The Venue, in the basement of the Oran Mor bar on Byres Road in Glasgow, in front of 450 fans. The show was a warm-up gig for James' appearance at T in the Park the following day, 7th July 2007. On Saturday the 17th (Weston Park, Staffordshire) and Sunday the 18th (Hylands Park, Chelmsford) of August they played to a crowd of tens of thousands at the 2007 V Festival before Kasabian and The Killers. They were the only band to invite members of the crowd onto the stage and during one of their songs, Tim Booth jumped off the stage and crowd surffed.

History
James was formed in 1981 in Whalley Range, Manchester, when music enthusiast Paul Gilbertson, inspired by the post-punk bands of the era, convinced his best friend Jim Glennie to buy a bass guitar and form a band with him. Rehearsing regularly in Glennie's bedroom with whatever other musicians were available, their line-up solidified with the acquisition of Gavan Whelan on drums, whose erratic, frenetic and almost tribal drum sound gave their music a distinctive edge against Gilbertson and Glennie's raw, untutored guitar and bass styles. They played a string of gigs under the names Venereal and The Diseases and, later, Volume Distortion (note the initials), before settling on the name of Model Team International, then shortened to Model Team.
They performed mostly spontaneous, purely improvised material derived from jam sessions, supporting The Fall at an early gig. Vocalists and other musicians drifted rapidly in and out of their line-up, until the band encountered Tim Booth at a student disco they had sneaked into. Intrigued by Booth's wild, Whirling Dervish-like dancing style, Gilbertson invited him to the band's Scout hut in Withington to join the band as a dancer. After accepting the invitation, Booth was quickly promoted to lead vocals as well as lyricist.
The contrast of well-spoken drama student and ruffians from Withington may have seemed a strange one, but it worked, imbuing the band's raw, primitive sound with an artistic sensibility. After a brief period under the name Tribal Outlook, the band renamed themselves James in August 1982, following Gilbertson's idea to name themselves after one of the band members. The name came from Jim Glennie. The other members' names were rejected - Gavan was "too heavy metal", while Paul was "too modest" to put his own name forward and Tim was concerned about accusations of egomania that might be associated with a band being named for the lead singer. James was, however, declared "amorphous enough" to summarize what the band was about. The band instantly knew that people would make the mistake of thinking their name represented one person, and played upon this by having Tim walk on stage alone at the beginning of one gig and reading a poem to trick the audience into thinking they had been conned into watching a poet. (Maconie, 2000).
The band became more and more prolific, operating on Gilbertson's principles of concentrating on their own individual sound, rejecting anything that sounded like any other band, and never being afraid to take risks. A gig at The Haçienda caught the attention of Tony Wilson of Factory Records. He offered James an album deal with Factory, but the band, by now excelling as a live act, were worried about tarnishing their material in the studio and settled instead for a three-track EP. Their debut release, the Jimone EP, was recorded at Strawberry Studios, Manchester, in August 1983 and released on Factory Records in November. It was named single of the week by major music papers in the UK, and led to a tour supporting The Smiths.
Although they were now being touted as the 'next big thing', several complex issues slowed their progress. As well as their suspicion of Factory, Paul Gilbertson's drug problems were causing his playing style to slacken and, despite having been their driving force, the band had no choice but to ask him to leave. Also, Booth and Glennie's search for spiritual meaning had led them to join a sect named Lifewave, which, despite increasing their general awareness and wellbeing, also imposed many restrictions which threatened the band's stability. The band's second EP, James II, was released over a year after the first and accompanied by a feature on the cover of the NME, Gilbertson having been replaced by the band's guitar tutor Larry Gott. (The first two EPs would later be collected as Village Fire.) Reviews were once again positive, and Factory was eager for James to record an album with them, but the band mistakenly believed Factory were purely image-based and left the label, striking a deal with Sire Records that would cost them dearly.
Their third release, the Sit Down EP (no relation to the song of that name) came out in March 1986, and was followed by their debut album, Stutter in June of that year. Although a powerful debut, reviews were generally lacklustre, the press having lost interest in James due to their slow progress, and the record company quickly lost faith in the band, the album making only number 68 in the UK chart. Low on money and lacking coverage and promotion, the band recorded their second album, Strip-mine under awkward circumstances, attempting a more conventional song structure in a desperate attempt to please Sire. The album almost went unreleased, but after undergoing a slight remix to sound more radio-friendly, Sire finally relented and released the album in September 1988, over a year after it had been initially completed. However, Sire were unwilling to invest in any kind of promotion, and the album reached only number 90. After finding a clause for escape in their contract, the band left Sire. Lacking both a deal and press coverage, they faced financial hardship. Desperate for money, the band members were driven to the extreme of participating as human guinea pigs in medical experiments at the Manchester Royal Infirmary, earning them a place on a TV documentary about the desperation of fallen rock stars.
However, all was not lost. James had by this point earned themselves a reputation as a solid live act due to the powerful and ritual-like feel of their live performances. They had built a solid fanbase, which was expanding via word of mouth, earning them the tag of 'Manchester's best kept secret'. Sales of James t-shirts skyrocketed, and James t-shirts were a common sight in Manchester even before they reached the top 40 (it was even joked that they sold more t-shirts than records). With a loan from a kindly bank manager, James financed the production of a live album, One Man Clapping, with the help of Rough Trade Records. The album went to #1 in the indie charts, reinvigorating media interest in the band.
In November 1988, drummer Whelan became involved in an on-stage fight with Tim Booth and was asked to leave the band. He was replaced by David Baynton-Power a few months later. With the loss of Whelan's distinctive drum sound, the band realized they would have to recruit new musicians to rejuvenate their sound, and during the following year they hired three new members in the forms of Saul Davies (guitar, violin, percussion), Mark Hunter (keyboards) and Andy Diagram (trumpet, percussion). The new seven-piece line-up went into the studio to record their third studio album, and new singles "Sit Down" and "Come Home" became strong hits in the independent charts. The album, Gold Mother, was intended to be released on Rough Trade but the owner of the label, Geoff Travis, believed James could only reach an audience of 20,000 to 30,000. The band believed they had more potential than this and bought the rights to the album from Rough Trade. A successful winter tour in 1989 attracted a deal with Fontana Records, and the band ended a difficult decade on an optimistic note.

The 1990s
After the disappointing performance of Millionaires the band chose to start anew in their approach to their next album. Working with Brian Eno once again, they spent most of 2000 recording the album, starting afresh as if this were their first album by writing the songs, then performing them live before actually recording them. They embarked on a small-scale tour in the autumn of that year on which their setlists consisted almost entirely of new material, feeling their songs had always reached their strongest levels and been honed into shape following their live reception. The album, Pleased To Meet You, was released in July 2001. The album's artwork featured a composite image of the faces of all the band members to create a new person - he was given the name 'James'. Stylistically the album was eclectic, combining elements of all the band's previous albums to create a compound representation of James' sound. With the media having lost interest once again, the album sadly received little promotion and was largely overlooked, reaching only #11, the lowest position for a James studio album since their signing to Fontana.
Shortly after its release, James reached the end of their contract, and Tim Booth announced he was leaving the band to concentrate on other projects of his own. They played a farewell tour of the UK at the end of the year, on which the loyalty of the band's fanbase was once again re-affirmed, with exuberant responses prevalent throughout the whole tour. Their final hometown gig, at the Manchester Evening News arena on December 7th, was recorded for a live CD and DVD, Getting Away With It... Live. Past members Larry Gott and Andy Diagram rejoined them for the tour, and Brian Eno himself joined them onstage at their final gig at London's Wembley Arena. The albums Gold Mother, Laid and Whiplash (each containing bonus tracks) were re-released by Mercury Records the following year, as well as a b-sides compilation entitled B-Sides Ultra.
Jim Glennie stated that James would continue despite the departure of Tim, having already had their fair share of setbacks. But Michael Kulas confirmed that he was told he wouldn't be needed in any future incarnation of James where Tim Booth wasn't the singer, and Saul Davies also confirmed his departure in 2 separate articles during 2002. Nothing new was heard from the band for the next five years.
A planned compilation of material from the band's Factory and Sire years was announced in 2001, but its release date was slowly pushed further and further back. Some mail-order companies listed it in 2002, but the album (named Strange Dancing) was never released. It had been suggested this compilation would include previously vinyl-only b-sides and maybe some unreleased songs from the eighties.
Tim Booth established himself as a solo artist in 2004 with the release of his solo album Bone, co-written and produced by Lee Muddy Baker.
A new compilation album, The Collection was released in late 2004, and Seven - The Live Concert (a DVD version of a previously released video) in 2005. Both were released with a non-existent marketing campaign and without input from any band members.
An article in Q Magazine in March 2006 entitled "Where are they now?" seemingly confirmed the band's demise (Dave Baynton-Power referred to the band as having split in the article).
In January 2007, music magazine Filter cited an announcement on singer Tim Booth's personal website, saying that "Tim will be rejoining James in early 2007 for a series of live shows to be announced very soon." [4] At the same time, James' old website was replaced by a new domain holder at www.wearejames.com. The site confirmed that the line-up for the reformed band will be that which recorded the album Laid: Booth, Gott, Glennie, Davies, Hunter and Baynton-Power. Booth confirmed in interviews that he became convinced to rejoin the band after meeting up with Glennie and Gott the previous November for a jamming session, out of which new songs were born.
The initial 5 dates of the tour were expanded to 7 on the day tickets went on sale (26th January) due to high demand; the whole tour had sold out by close of business. The tour will take place during late April 2007, to be followed later in the year by more live shows, including confirmed festival appearances at T in the Park and V Festival and a possible arena tour in December 2007. They also appeared at Summercase Barcelona's top music concert in Spain during July 2007. The band is also releasing a new compilation album, Fresh As A Daisy - The Singles, and an album of new material.
Jim Glennie has stated that James will be working on a new album throughout the remainder of 2007 with James playing a number of festivals in the summer. The album is expected to be released in early 2008. He said this in the blog on their official website; "The rest of the year will involve lots of songwriting and work for the next album, with an early 2008 release. We're playing a whole heap of festivals throughout the summer so I might see some of you there."
James play Belladrum Tartan Heart Festival, Inverness-shire in August 2007

The 2000s
A somewhat dubious honour that can be attributed to James is that many of their support acts went on to find great success of their own, eclipsing that of James themselves. In 1988 they were supported by The Stone Roses and the Happy Mondays (James went on to support the Happy Mondays only two years later). Nirvana were the support act for a show in 1991 - only a month later, Nevermind reached number one in the Billboard Album Charts. For their 1993 tour, Radiohead were the support.
After James' hiatus, the trend continued. Third Eye Blind supported in 1997; The Corrs and Stereophonics in 1998; Supergrass and Doves in 1999. In 2000 they were supported by Coldplay - a month later their breakthrough single "Yellow" was released, a month after that their debut album Parachutes went to #1 in the UK album chart.
The support for their 2007 UK tour were The Twang, already the subject of considerable media coverage.

James support acts

Discography

1986 Stutter (UK #68)
1988 Strip-mine (UK #90)
1990 Gold Mother (UK #2)
1992 Seven (UK #2)
1993 Laid (UK #3, US #72)
1994 Wah Wah(UK #11)
1997 Whiplash (UK #9, US #158)
1999 Millionaires (UK #2)
2001 Pleased to Meet You (UK #11)
2008 Untitled
1989 One Man Clapping
2002 Getting Away With It... Live (UK #102)
1991 James
1998 The Best Of (UK #1)
2001 B-Sides Ultra
2004 The Collection (UK #43)
2006 20th Century Masters: James
2007 Fresh as a Daisy - The Singles (UK#12) Albums

1983 Jimone
1985 James II
1985 Village Fire
1986 Chain Mail (UK #93)
1986 "So Many Ways"
1988 "What For" (UK #90)
1988 "Ya Ho"
1989 "Sit Down" (UK #77)
1989 "Come Home" (UK #84)
1990 "How Was It for You?" (UK #32)
1990 "Come Home" (Flood mix) (UK #32)
1990 "Lose Control" (UK #38)
1991 "Sit Down" (re-release) (UK #2)
1991 "Sound" (UK #9)
1992 "Born of Frustration" (UK #13)
1992 "Ring the Bells" (UK #37)
1992 "Seven" (UK #46)
1993 "Sometimes (Lester Piggott)" (UK #18)
1993 "Laid" (UK #25, US #61)
1994 "Jam J"/"Say Something" (UK #24)
1997 "She's a Star" (UK #9)
1997 "Tomorrow" (UK #12)
1997 "Waltzing Along" (UK #23)
1998 "Destiny Calling" (UK #17)
1998 "Runaground" (UK #29)
1998 "Sit Down" (Apollo 440 mix) (UK #7)
1999 "I Know What I'm Here For" (UK #22)
1999 "Just Like Fred Astaire" (UK #17)
1999 "We're Going to Miss You" (UK #48)
2001 "Getting Away With It (All Messed Up)" (UK #22)
2007 "Who Are You" Video & DVD

The Big White (2005) "Getting Away With It (All Messed Up)".
The X-Files Season 3 Episode 3 D.P.O. (1995) "Ring the Bells" played during the opening scene.
Up n Under "Tomorrow ".
Shopping "Jam J".

2007-12-14T11:46:00.001-08:00

Adriatic Base Ball Club of Newark
The Adriatic club was a member of the National Association of Base Ball Players before the American Civil War. The Adriatics first played another member in September 1857 and joined the NABBP for the 1858 to 1861 seasons.

2007-12-13T08:30:00.001-08:00

Alfred Werner (December 12, 1866 - November 15, 1919) was a Swiss chemist who was a professor at the University of Zurich. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1913 for proposing the octahedral configuration of transition metal complexes. Werner developed the basis for modern coordination chemistry. He was the first inorganic chemist to win the Nobel prize, and in fact the only one prior to 1973.
He was born in 1866 in Mulhouse, Alsace (which was then part of France, but which was annexed by Germany in 1871). He went to Switzerland to study chemistry at Zurich where he obtained his doctorate in 1890. After postdoctoral study in Paris, he returned to Zurich to teach in 1892, and became a professor as well a Swiss citizen in 1895.

Coordination chemistry
Before Werner, chemists defined the valence of an element as the number of its bonds without distinguishing different types of bond. However in complexes such as [Co(NH₃)₆Cl₃] for example, Werner considered that the Co-Cl bonds correspond to a "primary" valence of 3 at long distance, while the Co-NH₃ bonds which correspond to a "secondary" or weaker valence of 6 at shorter distance. This secondary valence of 6 he referred to as the coordination number which he defined as the number of molecules (here of NH₃) directly linked to the central metal atom. In other complexes he found coordination numbers of 4 or 8.
On these views, and other similar views, in 1904 Richard Abegg formulated what is now known as Abegg's rule which states that that the difference between the maximum positive and negative valence of an element is frequently eight. This rule was used later in 1916 when Gilbert N. Lewis formulated the "octet rule" in his cubical atom theory.
Today Werner's primary valence corresponds to the oxidation state, and the secondary valence is always called coordination number. The Co-Cl bonds (in the above example) are now classed as ionic, and each Co-N bond is a coordinate covalent bond between the Lewis acid Co and the Lewis base NH₃.

2007-12-12T11:35:00.001-08:00

The Byrd Glacier (80°20′S, 159°00′E) is a major glacier, about 136 km long and 24 km wide, draining an extensive area of the polar plateau and flowing eastward between the Britannia Range and Churchill Mountains to discharge into the Ross Ice Shelf at Barne Inlet.
Named by the NZ-APC after Rear Admiral Byrd, US Navy, American Antarctic explorer.

2007-12-11T08:26:00.001-08:00

In Irish mythology, Ériu (/ˈeːrʲu/), daughter of Ernmas of the Tuatha Dé Danann, was the eponymous patron goddess of Ireland. Her husband was Mac Gréine ('Son of the Sun'). She was the mother of Bres by Prince Elatha of the Fomorians.
The English name for Ireland comes from the name Ériu and the Old Norse or Anglo-Saxon word land.

Role and mythic portrayal
With her sisters, Banba and Fodla, she was part of an important triumvirate of goddesses. When the Milesians arrived from Spain each of the three sisters asked that her name be given to the country. This was granted to them, although Ériu (Éire) became the chief name in use (Banba and Fodla are still sometimes used as poetic names for Ireland, much as Albion is for Great Britain).
Ériu, Banba and Fodhla are interpreted as goddesses of sovereignty.

2007-12-10T09:05:00.001-08:00

Proposed changes to the 2011 Census regarding "Ethnic Group"

Ethnic groups of the United Kingdom
Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
United Kingdom Census 2001
Demographics of England from the 2001 United Kingdom census

2007-12-09T11:04:00.001-08:00

The Synod of Hippo refers to the synod of 393 A.D. which was hosted in Hippo Regius in northern Africa during the early christian church. Additional synods were held in 394, 397, 401 and 426.
Some were attended by St. Augustine. The synod of 393 is most known for two distinct acts. First, for the first time a council of bishops listed and approved a canon of Sacred Scripture that corresponds to the modern Roman Catholic canon, including the deuterocanonical books classed by Protestants as "Apocrypha". The canon was later approved at the Council of Carthage pending the ratification of the "Church across the sea". Previous councils had approved of similar, but slightly different canons. Second, the council reaffirmed the apostolic origin of the requirement of clerical continence and reasserted it as a requirement for all the ordained.

2007-12-08T08:31:00.001-08:00

Biography
His career as both leader and sideman with more than three hundred recordings demonstrates that he is one of the most prolific luminaries in jazz. Clark composed more than two hundred jazz songs and performed for seven U.S. Presidents.
Clark's discography reads like a "Who's Who In Jazz," with personnel that includes great jazz artists such as Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Quincy Jones, Ella Fitzgerald, Oscar Peterson, Dizzy Gillespie, Dinah Washington, Ben Webster, Charlie Barnet, Doc Severinsen, Ray Charles, Billy Strayhorn, Eddie Vinson, Dexter Gordon, Thelonious Monk, Billie Holiday, Sarah Vaughan, Coleman Hawkins, Zoot Sims, Wes Montgomery, Milt Jackson, Bob Brookmeyer, Jon Faddis, Cecil Taylor and Dianne Reeves.
He also has several recordings with major groups including The London Symphony Orchestra, The Dutch Metropole Orchestra, The Duke Ellington Orchestra and The Chicago Jazz Orchestra, Hundreds of high school and college ensembles, his own duos, trios, quartets, quintets, sextets, octets, and two big bands; Clark Terry's Big Bad Band and Clark Terry's Young Titans of Jazz.

Significant Jazz Contributions
"Clark Terry," writes Chuck Berg, "is one of contemporary music's great innovators, and justly celebrated for his great technical virtuosity, swinging lyricism, and impeccable good taste. Combining these with the gifts of a great dramatist, Clark is a master storyteller whose spellbinding musical 'tales' leave audiences thrilled and always awaiting more. [1]

What Other People Say
Terry has received several awards and recognition in his career, most notably:

He was inducted into the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Hall of Fame in 1991.
He received a Grammy Award, two Grammy certificates, three Grammy nominations
Received sixteen honorary doctorates
Awarded keys to several cities
Terry was a Jazz Ambassador for U.S. State Department tours in the Middle East and Africa.
He was knighted in Germany
Terry is a recipient of the French Order of Arts and Letters.
Sat for a life-sized wax figure for the Black World History Museum in St. Louis.
In 1996, Terry was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
In 2005 he was voted Trumpeter of the Year by the Jazz Journalists Association. Books
Clark Terry's recordings as a leader.
Clark Terry has recently made a guest appearance at the Wayne Jazz Festival, performing with many middle school Jazz Ensembles and William Patterson University's Jazz Ensemble.

Clark Terry (Polygram, 1954)
Clark Terry with Quentin Jackson/Martial Solal/Kenny Clarke (Disques Swing, 1955)
Introducing Clark Terry (EmArcy, 1955)
Swahili (EmArcy, 1955)
Serenade to a Bus Seat (Riverside/OJC, 1957)
Duke with a Difference (Riverside/OJC, 1957)
Clark Terry Quartet with Thelonious Monk (Jazzland, 1958)
In Orbit (Riverside/OJC, 1958)
Out on a Limb with Clark Terry (Argo, 1958)
Top and Bottom Brass (Riverside/OJC, 1959)
Paris (1960) (Swing, 1960)
Color Changes (Candid, 1960)
Everything's Mellow (Prestige, 1961)
Mellow Moods (Prestige, 1961)
All American (Prestige, 1962)
Plays the Jazz Version of "All American" (Moodsville, 1962)
The Night Life (Mood, 1962)
Clark Terry & Bob Brookmeyer (Verve, 1962)
More (Cameo, 1963)
Tread Ye Lightly (Cameo, 1963)
What Makes Sammy Swing (20th Century, 1963)
The Happy Horns of Clark Terry (GRP/Impulse!, 1964)
The Power of Positive Swinging (Mainstream, 1964)
Live 1964 (Emerald, 1964)
Quintet (Mainstream, 1964)
Tonight (Mainstream, 1964)
Clark Terry Tonight (Mainstream, 1964)
Oscar Peterson Trio with Clark Terry (Mercury, 1964)
Spanish Rice (Impulse!, 1966)
Gingerbread Men (Mainstream, 1966)
Mumbles (Mainstream, 1966)
Angyumaluma Bongliddleany Nannyany Awhan Yi! (Mainstream, 1966)
It's What's Happenin' (Impulse!, 1967)
Music in the Garden (Jazz Heritage, 1968)
At the Montreux Jazz Festival (Polydor, 1969)
Live on 57th Street (Big Bear, 1969)
Big B-A-D Band In Concert, Live 1970... (EToile, 1970)
Live at the Wichita Jazz Festival (Vanguard, 1974)
Clark Terry and His Jolly Giants (Vanguard, 1975)
Live at the Wichita Jazz Festival (Vanguard, 1975)
Clark Terry's Big B-A-D Band Live at Buddy's... (Vanguard, 1976)
Clark Terry's Big B-A-D Band Live at Buddy's... (Vanguard, 1976)
Live at the Jazz House (Pausa, 1976)
Wham (BASF, 1976)
Squeeze Me (Chiaroscuro, 1976)
The Globetrotter (Vanguard, 1977)
Out of Nowhere (Bingow, 1978)
Brahms Lullabye (Amplitude, 1978)
Funk Dumplin's (Matrix, 1978)
Clark After Dark (MPS, 1978)
Mother______! Mother______! (Pablo, 1979)
Ain't Misbehavin' (Pablo, 1979)
Live in Chicago, Vol. 1 (Monad, 1979)
Live in Chicago, Vol. 2 (Monad, 1979)
Memories of Duke (Pablo/OJC, 1980)
Yes, the Blues (Pablo/OJC, 1981)
To Duke and Basie (Rhino, 1986)
Jive at Five (Enja, 1986)
Metropole Orchestra (Mons, 1988)
Portraits (Chesky, 1988)
The Clark Terry Spacemen (Chiaroscuro, 1989)
Locksmith Blues (Concord Jazz, 1989)
Having Fun (Delos, 1990)
Live at the Village Gate (Chesky, 1990)
Live at the Village Gate: Second Set (Chesky, 1990)
What a Wonderful World: For Lou (Red Baron, 1993)
Shades of Blues (Challenge, 1994)
Remember the Time (Mons, 1994)
With Pee Wee Claybrook & Swing Fever (D' Note, 1995)
Top and Bottom Brass (Chiaroscuro, 1995)
Reunion (D'Note, 1995)
Express (Reference, 1995)
Good Things in Life (Mons, 1996)
Ow (E.J., 1996)
Alternate Blues (Analogue, 1996)
Daylight Express (GRP, 1998)
Ritter der Ronneburg, 1998 (Mons, 1998)
Living Worship Let's Worship (Newport, 1999)
One on One (Chesky, 2000)
A Jazz Symphony (Centaur, 2000)
Herr Ober: Live at Birdland Neuburg (Nagel-Heyer, 2001)
Live on QE2 (Chiaroscuro, 2001)
Jazz Matinee (Hanssler, 2001)
The Hymn (Candid, 2001)
Clark Terry and His Orchestra Featuring Paul... (Storyville, 2002)
Live in Concert (Image, 2002)
Flutin' and Fluglin (Past Perfect, 2002)
Friendship (Columbia, 2002)
Live! At Buddy's Place (Universe, 2003)
Clark Terry (Emarcy, 2003)
Live at Montmarte June 1975 (Storyville, 2003)
George Gershwin's Porgy & Bess (A440 Music Group, 2004)
Live at Marian's with the Terry's Young Titan's of Jazz (Chiaroscuro, 2005)

2007-12-07T07:44:00.000-08:00

Parliament House in Melbourne has been the seat of the Parliament of Victoria, Australia, since 1855, except for the years 1901 to 1927, when it was occupied by the Parliament of Australia. It is the largest 19th century public building in Australia and one of the finest examples of the civic architecture of the British Empire period anywhere in the world.
In 1851, even before the colony of Victoria acquired full parliamentary self-government, Governor Charles La Trobe instructed the colonial surveyor, Robert Hoddle, to select a site for the colony's new parliament to meet. Hoddle selected a site on the eastern hill at the top of Bourke Street, which at that time, when few buildings were more than two storeys high, commanded a view of the whole city. A competition was held for a design for the building, but all the entries were rejected and the government architect, Charles Pasley, came up with a design of his own. Subsequent obersevers have suggested that he borrowed heavily from the Leeds Town Hall, which is widely considered to be among the finest civic buildings in the United Kingdom. The design was later modified by another architect, Peter Kerr.
In December 1855 construction began on the site in Spring Street, and the building was completed in stages between 1856 and 1929. The chambers for the Victorian Legislative Assembly and the Victorian Legislative Council were finished in 1856, at which time Bourke Street ran between the two chambers. The library was completed in 1860, and the Great Hall (now Queen's Hall) and the vestibule in 1879. In the 1880s, at the height of the great boom fuelled by the Victorian Gold Rush, it was decided to add a classical colonnade and portico facing Spring St, which today gives the building its monumental character. This was completed in 1892. The north wing was completed in 1893 and refreshment rooms at the back of the building were added in 1929.
Pasley and Kerr's design included plans for a dome, but these were abandoned when a sharp depression began in 1891, and the dome was never built. From time to time governments have expressed interest in completing the building by adding the dome, but have been deterred by the enormous cost. The Kennett government, elected in 1992, set up a committee to examine building the dome, but the idea was abandoned when the trade unions would not guarantee that the project would go ahead without industrial disputes.
From 1901 to 1927 Parliament House was the home of the Commonwealth Parliament, since the new capital city envisaged in the Australian Constitution did not yet exist and there were long delays in finding a site and beginning construction. During these years the Victorian Parliament met in the Royal Exhibition Building in Carlton, much to its dissatisfaction. Many of the major events of the early federal period took place in this building, including the formation of the Federal Parliamentary Australian Labor Party, the "fusion" of the Free Trade Party and the Protectionist Party into the first Liberal Party in 1909 and the split in the Labor Party over conscription in 1916. The building is also notable in having the first set of electrical bells used to call Members of Parliament to divisions (installed circa 1877).
Victoria Parliament
Victoria Parliament House
Victoria Parliament Melbourne (Colonnades & Arcade)
Victoria Parliament Melbourne (Entrance Gate)

2007-12-06T09:02:00.001-08:00

Peter Michael Falk (born September 16, 1927) is a two-time Academy Award-nominated, six-time Emmy Award-winning American actor, best known for his role as Lt. Columbo in the television series Columbo.

Early years
After deciding to be an actor and studying at the White Barn Theatre in Westport, Connecticut, in 1956 at the age of 29, he left his job with the Budget Bureau and moved to Greenwich Village. He made his professional debut Off Broadway in Molière's Don Juan at the Fourth Street Theatre on January 3, 1956, and the same year his Broadway debut playing an English soldier in Shaw's Saint Joan with Siobhán McKenna. He won an Emmy for "The Price of Tomatoes", a Dick Powell TV drama. Falk has been nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award twice, for Murder, Inc., and Pocketful of Miracles.

Acting
Falk is best known for the title role in the long-running TV series Columbo, a shabby and ostensibly absent-minded police detective. In reality, Columbo possessed a keen mind and invariably solved his cases by paying close attention to tiny inconsistencies in a suspect's story, hounding them until they confessed; he merely put on a good show of being dim-witted so that the criminals and even his colleagues would be more at ease around him. Columbo's signature technique was to exit the scene of an interview, only to stop in the doorway to ask a suspect "just one more thing" (the title of Falk's recent memoir), which always brought to light the key inconsistency. The role won Falk five Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe.

2007-12-05T10:07:00.001-08:00

In international commerce and politics, an embargo is the prohibition of commerce and trade with a certain country, in order to isolate it and to put its government into a difficult internal situation, given that the effects of the embargo are often able to make its economy suffer from the initiative.
The embargo is usually used as a political punishment for some previous disagreed policies or acts, but its economic nature frequently raises doubts about the real interests that the prohibition serves.
One of the most comprehensive attempts at an embargo happened during the Napoleonic Wars. In an attempt to cripple the United Kingdom economically, the Continental System which forbade European nations from trading with the UK was created. In practice it was not completely enforceable and was as harmful if not more so to the nations involved than to the British.
Although the law of the United States does not prohibit participation in an embargo, it does prohibit participation in a secondary embargo. This occurs when one country pressures a business to stop doing business with a third country over issues with which the business is not directly involved. Not only is an American business required not to participate in a secondary embargo, but is also required to report all attempts to get a business to participate in a secondary embargo. The situation which led to these laws are attempts by Arab countries to prevent American companies from doing business with Israel.
The typical reaction is the development of an autarky.

2007-12-04T07:52:00.001-08:00

The Milton Icehawks are a Tier II Junior "A" ice hockey team from Milton, Ontario, Canada. They are a part of the Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League.

Season-by-Season Results

2007-12-03T10:23:00.001-08:00

Criticism
Hard news and soft news are terms for describing a relative difference between poles in a spectrum within the broader news trade—with "hard" journalism at the professional end and "soft" infotainment at the other. Because the term "news" is quite broad, the terms "hard" and "soft" denote both a difference in respective standards for news value, as well as for standards of conduct, relative to the professional ideals of journalistic integrity.
The idea of hard news embodies two orthogonal concepts:
The logical opposite, soft news is sometimes referred to in a derogatory fashion as infotainment. Defining features catching the most criticism include:
Timely events happen in less serious subjects—sporting matches, celebrity misadventures, movie releases, art exhibits, and so on.
There may also be serious reports which are not event-driven—coverage of important social, economic, legal, or technological trends; investigative reports which uncover ongoing corruption, waste, or immorality; or discussion of unsettled political issues without any special reason. Anniversaries, holidays, the end of a year or season, or the end of the first 100 days of an administration, can make some stories time-sensitive, but provide more of an opportunity for reflection and analysis than any actual "news" to report.
The spectrum of "seriousness" and "importance" is not well-defined, and different media organizations make different tradeoffs. "News you can use", a common marketing phrase highlighting a specific genre of journalism, spans the gray area. Gardening tips and hobby "news" pretty clearly fall at the entertainment end. Warnings about imminent natural disasters or acute domestic security threats (such as air raids or terrorist attacks) are considered so important that broadcast media (even non-news channels) usually interrupt other programming to announce them. A medical story about a new treatment for breast cancer, or a report about local ground water pollution might fall in between. So might book reviews, or coverage of religion. On the other hand, people frequently find hobbies and entertainment to be worthwhile parts of their lives and so "importance" on a personal level is rather subjective.

Seriousness: Politics, economics, crime, war, and disasters are considered serious topics, as are certain aspects of law, science, and technology.
Timeliness: Stories that cover current events—the progress of a war, the results of a vote, the breaking out of a fire, a significant public statement, the freeing of a prisoner, an economic report of note.
The least serious subjects: Arts and entertainment, sports, lifestyles, "human interest", and celebrities.
Not timely: There is no precipitating event triggering the story, other than a reporter's curiosity. Hard news, soft news and infotainment
The label "infotainment" is emblematic of concern and criticism that journalism is devolving from a medium which conveys serious information about issues that affect the public interest, into a form of entertainment which happens to have fresh "facts" in the mix. The criteria by which reporters and editors judge news value - whether something is worth putting on the front page, the bottom of the hour, or is worth commenting on at all - is an integral part of this debate.
Some blame the media for this perceived phenomenon, for failing to live up to ideals of civic journalistic responsibility. Others blame the commercial nature of many media organizations, the need for higher ratings, combined with a preference among the public for feel-good content and "unimportant" topics (like celebrity gossip or sports).
A specialization process has also occurred, beginning with the rise of mass market special-interest magazines, moving into broadcast with the advent of cable television, and continuing into new media, like the Internet and satellite radio. An increasing number of media outlets are available to the public that focus exclusively on one topic such as current events, home improvement, history, movies, women and Christianity. This means that consumers have more choice over whether they receive a general feed of the most "important" information of the day, or whether they get a highly customized presentation that contains only one type of content, which need not be newsworthy, and which need not come from a neutral point of view. Some publications and channels have found a sizable audience in the "niche" of featuring hard news. But controversy continues over whether the size of that audience is too small, and whether those outlets are diluting content with too much "soft" news.

Concerns and criticisms
Some journalists define "journalism" to include only report on "serious" subjects, where common journalistic standards are upheld by the reporter. The larger "news business" or news trade encompasses everything from professional journalism to so-called "soft news" and "infotainment", and support activities such as marketing, advertising sales, finance and delivery. Professional journalism is supposed to place more emphasis on research, fact-checking, and the public interest than its "non-journalistic" counterparts.

Entertainment and news crossovers
The infotainment concept is taken to its logical extreme by the increasingly ubiquitous "infomercial", which is blatant, thinly disguised advertising presented as though it were infotainment. This is not the same thing as Home Shopping, which doesn't attempt to disguise its real purpose. This technique can be quite insidious, depending on the skill of the presenter, and his/her ability to seamlessly transfer focus from the lead topic to the advertising.
The terms "Infotainment" and "Infotainer" were first used in September 1980 at the Joint Conference of Aslib, the Institute of Information Scientists and the Library Association in Sheffield, UK. The Infotainers were a group of British information scientists who put on comedy shows at their professional conferences between 1980 and 1990.

2007-12-02T07:40:00.001-08:00

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Estonia
Parliamentary elections took place in Estonia on Sunday, March 4, 2007 to elect members of the Riigikogu. The electoral system was a two-tier semi-open list proportional representation system with a 5% (27,510.65 votes) election threshold. It was the world's first nationwide vote where part of the votecasting was allowed in the form of remote electronic voting via the Internet.

Constitution
President

Toomas Hendrik Ilves
Prime Minister
- Andrus Ansip
  Government (cabinet)
  - Present cabinet
    Parliament (Riigikogu)
    Supreme Court
    Elections: 2007 - 2003
    Political parties
    Politicians
    Counties (Maakond)
    Municipalities
    EU Politics
    Foreign relations Voting
    
    Main article: Electronic voting in Estonia E-voting via the Internet
    
    The contenders and their prime-ministerial candidates
    
    Social Democratic Party - Ivari Padar
    People's Union of Estonia - Villu Reiljan
    Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica - Mart Laar
    Estonian Reform Party - Andrus Ansip
    Estonian Centre Party - Edgar Savisaar Parties represented in the previous Parliament
    Also, seven independent candidates stood in this election.
    
    Estonian Left Party
    Estonian Independence Party
    Estonian Christian Democrats
    Estonian Greens
    Constitution Party
    Russian Party in Estonia

2007-12-01T08:08:00.001-08:00

Campus radio (also known as college radio, university radio or student radio) is a type of radio station that is run by the students of a college, university or other educational institution. Programming may be exclusively by students, or may include programmers from the wider community in which the station is based. Sometimes campus stations are operated for the purpose of training professional radio personnel, sometimes with the aim of broadcasting educational programming, while other stations exist to provide an alternative to commercial or government broadcasters.
Campus radio stations are generally licensed and regulated by national governments, and so have very different characteristics from one country to the next. One commonality between many stations regardless of their physical location is a willingness — or, in some countries, even a licensing requirement — to broadcast musical selections that are not categorized as commercial hits. Because of this, campus radio has come to be associated with emerging musical trends (cf. alternative rock in the latter portion of the 20th century in the United States and elsewhere). Despite this, many campus radio stations carry a variety of programming including news (often local), sports (often relating to the campus), and spoken word programming as well as general music. Often the format is best described as a freeform radio format, with a lot of creativity and individualism among the disc jockeys and show hosts. A number of these stations have gained critical acclaim for their programming and are considered by the community in which they are embedded to be an essential media outlet.
Although the term campus radio implies full-power AM or FM transmission over the air, many stations experiment with low-power broadcasting, closed circuit or carrier current systems, often to on-campus listeners only. Some stations are distributed through the cable television network on cable FM or the second audio program of a TV station. Some universities and colleges broadcast one or more Internet radio feeds — either instead of, or in addition to a campus radio station — which may differ in format significantly from licensed traditional campus radio.

Canada
Community groups in India, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have been campaigning for permission to set up community radio (CR) stations since the late nineties. But the government, particularly under the earlier Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), allowed the setting up of campus radio stations by educational institutions.
News, as of November 2006, has it that the India cabinet decided to grant permission to non-profit organizations and educational institutions to set up community radio stations. The cabinet decision will allow civil society and voluntary organizations, state agriculture universities and institutions, Krishi Vigyan Kendras or agricultural science centres, registered societies and autonomous boards and public trusts registered under Societies Act to start community radio stations.
Ravi Shankar Prasad, the then Minister for Information and Broadcasting in the BJP-lead National Democratic Alliance government, told India's upper house of parliament the Rajya Sabha on December 22, 2003, that four organizations including Jammu University and Kashmir University were found ineligible for grant of license as per the laid down guidelines. The minister also ruled out any review of the policy despite limited response to the non-commercial, low-powered FM radio scheme which former information and broadcasting minister Sushma Swaraj had said would "revolutionize" radio broadcast in the country.
Radio enthusiast Alokesh Gupta saying: "The announcement of the Government was to have seen 1000 radio stations by December 2003. Instead administrative wrangling came in the way of implementing the project as colleges spent time running around for licenses and approval from four ministries — Home Affairs, Communications & Information & Broadcasting — as they took their time processing applications."
On February 2, 2004, Anna University in Chennai unveiled the country's first campus radio station, Anna FM. Radio Ujjas in Kutch (in the western state of Gujarat) is one such CR and gets its funding from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Central Government. Similarly a community based radio programme titled Panchayat Vani (People's Voice) was recently broadcast on All India Radio (AIR), Darbhanga, Bihar. The campus station Gyanvaani has also been licensed.
Pune University is the first University in the State of Maharashtra to have an FM station. The University of Pune's FM Radio inaugurated on May 1, 2005, has been named as Vidyavani. It covers a wide range of subjects, focusing specifically on the requirements of students of various departments and affiliated Colleges. It reaches an area around the campus within eight-km radius.
Unsuccessful attempts have been also made to start CR without obtaining any permission. The small village of Orvakal in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh (South India) launched "Mana Radio" (Our Radio) in November 2002. This project run under the aegis of the Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty used a tiny transmitter that covered a radius of half a kilometer to enable rural women members of self help groups. Four months later, officials from the Central Government brought in police to seize the equipment and declared the broadcasts illegal.
The Government policy to permit educational institutions to have their own FM Channels at low frequency levels emerged in mid December 2002, as a result of years of campaigning by activists and a strongly-worded Supreme Court judgment directing the opening up of the airwaves.
A unique experiment in using media technologies, especially radio, for development and empowerment of marginalized, rural communities is the community radio initiative "Chalo Ho Gaon Mein" a programme that is broadcast once a week on AIR Daltonganj in the Palamu district of Jharkhand, eastern India. This radio programme is supported by the National Foundation for India and produced by Community representatives, of Alternative for India Development (AID), a non-governmental organization.
According to the terms of the campus broad license, a number of aspects are disallowed from broadcasts. This includes anything that offends good taste or decency, contains criticism of friendly countries, contains an attack on religion, contains anything obscene, defamatory, false and suggestive innuendos and half truths, likely to encourage or incite violence, contains anything affecting the integrity of the nation, criticizes, maligns or slanders any individual in person, encourages superstition or blind belief, denigrates women, denigrates children, or presents or depicts or suggests as desirable the misuse of drugs, alcohol, narcotics, and tobacco.

India
Campus radio also exists in Israel, where several colleges, universities and high schools have successful programs. One of the most famous is Kol HaCampus (Voice of the Campus/Campus Voice), broadcast out of Tel Aviv on 106MHz. More information can be found with the Israel Broadcast Authority.

Israel

Students Radio Żak (Technical University of Lodz) [1] Poland
In Portugal, there are several college and university radio stations continuously broadcasting programs. Rádio Universidade de Coimbra and Rádio Universidade Marão, founded in 1986, are the oldest university student radio stations in the country still in operation. There are also many online-only radio sites belonging to higher education institutions.
Portugal's major college and university radio stations include:

Rádio Universidade de Coimbra (University of Coimbra) [2]
Rádio Universidade Marão (Trás-os-Montes and Alto-Douro University) [3]
Rádio Universitária da Beira Interior (University of Beira Interior) [4]
Rádio Universitária do Algarve (University of the Algarve) [5]
Rádio Universitária do Minho (Minho University) [6] Portugal
Fréquence Banane is the student radio in Lausanne on EPFL and UNIL campus. It exists since 1993 and is broadcasting on the Internet and CATV network on FM 94.55 MHz in Lausanne and region. In the past Frequence Banane has broadcasted with former Radio Acidule from 1992 to 1996 and then had its independent FM transmitter operating on 92.4 MHz from 1998 to 2005. In 2005, Swiss frequency regulation authority (BAKOM) decided to end the low power FM licence.
Radio Radius is an uprising capus radio in Zurich on ETHZ and UNIZH campus. It's broadcasting on the Internet only. Radius is trying to get a permanent licence to broadcast on FM but it is very hard in Zurich. Right now Radius is negotiating with BAKOM.

Frequence Banane website
Frequence Banane mp3 128kbps stream
Frequence Banane realaudio 64kbps stream
Radio Radius website
ogg vorbis stream Switzerland
In the United Kingdom, campus radio is generally referred to as student radio. University Radio York, founded in 1967, became the first student radio station in the country. Followed by Swansea University's station Action Radio (now called Xtreme Radio in 1968).
Some student radio stations operate on the FM waveband for short periods at a time under the Restricted Service Licence scheme, while others choose to broadcast full-time on the AM waveband using an LPAM licence. There are only three UK student radio stations permitted to broadcast all year on LPFM. These are Xpression FM (Exeter), Storm FM (Bangor) and Bailrigg FM (Lancaster). None of these licences provides for a reception area greater than four kilometres from the point of transmission. To counteract these licence restrictions and, in the case of AM broadcasts, poor quality audio, many stations simulcast on the Internet.
The Student Radio Association works on behalf of more than fifty UK-based member stations to further their development, encourage and facilitate communication between member stations and links to the commercial radio industry, and lobby for the membership's interests on both a regional and national level. The association organises and hosts the annual Student Radio Awards in conjunction with BBC Radio 1.
See also List of radio stations in the United Kingdom

United States

Radio UPF
Radio AFB

2007-11-30T10:46:00.001-08:00

Statutory holidays
The nine statutory holidays listed above are mandated by federal legislation for federally regulated employees, as is Easter Monday. All banks apply these holidays to their schedule.

Federal
Provinces and territories generally adopt the same holidays as the federal government with some variations:
Many employers give their employees days off that may not be statutory holidays in the particular province, particularly Boxing Day. Similarly, many federally regulated employees have negotiated additional holidays, that are common holidays in the provinces such that many also take Easter Monday and the first Monday in August.

Alberta - 9 holidays

Heritage Day - first Monday of August is not a statutory holiday.
Boxing Day is not a statutory holiday.
Remembrance Day Remembrance Day - November 11
Family Day - third Monday in February
British Columbia - 9 holidays
- Boxing Day is not a statutory holiday.
  British Columbia Day - first Monday in August
  Manitoba - 9 holidays
  - Manitoba's newest unnamed holiday will be celebrated on the 3rd Monday of February starting February 18th 2008. This holiday is similar to Family Day in Alberta and Saskatchewan
    Remembrance Day and Boxing Day are not statutory holidays, although only the Retail Sector is open on these days within specific regulatory guidelines for hours of service.
    Remembrance Day is not termed a statutory holiday, but rather an "Official day of Observance", and must be paid overtime if required to work on this day. Most Manitobans, with the exception of the retail sector, get the day off.
    First Monday in August.
    New Brunswick - 7 holidays
    - Victoria Day, Thanksgiving, and Boxing Day are not statutory holidays.
      New Brunswick Day - first Monday in August
      Newfoundland and Labrador - up to 11 holidays (most observed on closest Monday) per the Shops' Closing Act
      - All federal holidays as listed above. Canada Day is additionally celebrated as Memorial Day.
        Easter Sunday (in some cases, e.g. banks, observed on Monday)
        Unlike most other provinces, there is no province-wide holiday on the first Monday in August. It may be seen as redundant due to the Royal St. John's Regatta, which is observed as a civic holiday in St. John's on the first Wednesday in August (weather permitting). Harbour Grace has a similar holiday for its regatta. All other municipalities are entitled to designate one day a year as a civic holiday, however many do not take advantage of this.
        St. Patrick's Day (March 17), St. George's Day (April 23), Discovery Day (June 24) and Orangemen's Day (July 12) have not been observed as statutory holidays since 1992. They are, however, observed by the provincial government.
        Northwest Territories - 10 holidays
        
        National Aboriginal Day - June 21
        Nova Scotia - 6 holidays (including Remembrance Day; see below)
        
        Victoria Day, Thanksgiving, and Boxing Day are not statutory holidays.
        Remembrance Day is a special case and employers have the option of giving Remembrance Day or an alternate day off.
        Natal Day - First Monday in August is not a statutory holiday but a common day off.
        Nunavut - 9 holidays
        
        Nunavut Day - July 9, originated as a paid holiday for Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated and regional Inuit associations. It became a ½ day holiday for Government employees in 1999 and a full day in 2001. Most employers give the day off with the notable exceptions being the Federal Government and the North West Company.
        Boxing Day is not a statutory holiday.
        First Monday in August.
        Ontario - 8 holidays
        
        Remembrance Day is not a statutory holiday in Ontario.
        Although not a statutory holiday, municipalities may designate the first Monday in August as a civic holiday. This is called Simcoe Day in Toronto, and Colonel By Day in Ottawa, with other areas using other names.
        Prince Edward Island - 6 holidays
        
        The August Civic holiday, Easter Monday, Thanksgiving, and Boxing Day are not statutory holidays. However, Federal Government employees (and some Provincial employees) do have arrangements in their collective agreements to receive these as paid days off. Provincial employees in some cases have bargained for the Gold Cup and Saucer Day in place of the August Civic holiday.
        Quebec - 8 holidays
        
        Employers must give either Good Friday or Easter Monday as a statutory holiday.
        Victoria Day coincides with National Patriotes Day.
        Fête Nationale (St. John the Baptist's Day) - June 24
        Construction Holiday takes place during the last two weeks of July — while it applies officially only to the construction industry, many other Quebecers arrange to take their vacations during these two weeks.
        Many of the specific details of employment law are quite different in Quebec.
        Saskatchewan - 9 holidays
        
        Family Day - third Monday in February
        Saskatchewan Day - first Monday in August
        Yukon - 9 holidays
        
        Discovery Day - third Monday in August Provincial and territorial
        In Canada, there are two definitions of the term "civic holiday":
        
        Civic holidays
        By law, a civic holiday is defined as any holiday which is legally recognized and for which employers are obliged to offer holiday pay.
        
        Legal definition
        Another common definition of the civic holiday refers to a particular annual holiday, celebrated on the first Monday of August in most Canadian provinces. However, this definition is far from uniform nationwide. Two provinces and one territory do not recognize it at all, and five other provinces do not oblige employers to offer holiday pay on this day, thus making it a civic holiday in the legal sense. No universal name is recognized for this holiday, either — the official name varies between the provinces and even between municipalities within Ontario. In British Columbia this day is known as BC Day.
        
        The August holiday
        Some cities also have statutory holidays that are celebrated only within the city limits. For instance, the morning of the Stampede Parade is a legal half-day holiday in the city of Calgary.
        
        Proposed holidays
        
        National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women on December 6
        Canadian Multiculturalism Day on June 27
        National Aboriginal Solidarity Day on June 21
        Commonwealth Day on the second Monday in March. This has been observed as a holiday in some Commonwealth countries.

2007-11-29T08:48:00.000-08:00

The Higgs boson is a hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model of particle physics. It is the only Standard Model particle not yet observed, but plays a key role in explaining the origins of the mass of other elementary particles, in particular the difference between the massless photon and the relatively heavy W and Z bosons. Elementary particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (caused by the photon) and the weak force (caused by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter; thus, if it exists, the Higgs boson has an enormous effect on the world around us.
As of 2007, no experiment has directly detected the existence of the Higgs boson, but there is indirect evidence for it. The Higgs mechanism, which gives mass to vector bosons, was first theorized in 1964 by Peter Higgs, François Englert and Robert Brout, working from the ideas of Philip Anderson, and independently by G. S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, and T. W. B. Kibble . Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam were the first to apply the Higgs mechanism to the electroweak symmetry breaking. The electroweak theory predicts a neutral particle whose mass is not far from the W and Z bosons.

Theoretical overview
As of 2007, the Higgs boson has not been observed experimentally, despite large efforts invested in accelerator experiments at CERN and Fermilab. The non-observation of clear signals leads to an experimental lower bound for the Higgs boson mass of 114.4 GeV at 95% confidence level. A small number of events were recorded by experiments at LEP collider at CERN that could be interpreted as resulting from Higgs bosons, but the evidence is inconclusive. but no evidence is yet compelling enough to convince the scientific community as a whole.
As of August of 2007, Tevatron results continue to hint at a Higgs mass near the low end of the allowed range, presenting a potentially awkward situation to the LHC project.

Experimental search

Main article: Higgsless model Alternatives to the Higgs mechanism for electroweak symmetry breaking

Main article: Higgs boson (fiction)

2007-11-28T09:03:00.000-08:00

Hellenization (or Hellenisation) is a historical term most widely used to describe a growing cultural influence of Hellenistic civilization. It was most prominently achieved under Alexander III of Macedon who spread Greek language, culture and religion to the lands he conquered. The result, some elements of Greek origin combined in various forms and degrees with other elements taken from conquered civilizations, is known as Hellenism.

Historic usage
A disputed modern use is in connection with policies pursuing cultural harmonization and education of the linguistic minorities resident within the modern Greek state (the Hellenic Republic) in relation to Aromanians, Arvanites, Roma, Slavophones, and the Muslim minority of Thrace. It has been suggested in connection with a statement from Greek Helsinki Monitor, arguing "Greece, like all other Balkan countries, has traditionally followed assimilatory policies and/or has discriminated against its citizens with a minority religious, ethnonational or ethnolinguistic identity. The Balkan wars of the 1910s and the First World War, along with the resulting bilateral agreements with Bulgaria and Turkey to exchange the respective minority populations, contributed to the substantial cleansing of the current territory of the Greek state from most of its non-Greek populations... acknowledging the presence of Turks, let alone Macedonians, in the country is widely perceived as a near-treason, and may lead to castigation, persecution or even prosecution of those who make such arguments."[1].
However, others point out that a number of minority groups in greece have come to be seen as integral to the modern greek narrative while still retaining a degree of separate identity, attested to, this view highlights , by the persistence of Greek-Vlach public organisations and the avowedly greek/vlach and greek/arvanite status of several heroes of the country's popular narrative.
Alexander the great was a Greek emperor who conquered almost all the world. In his period of government he created Hellenization. Hellenization was a historical term most widely used to describe a growing cultural influence of Hellenistic civilization. Alexander invented the commercial cities and multiplied them throughout his empire and developed a transportation network to support commerce. It allowed him to receive supplies for his conquering projects anywhere in the world in an early version of globalization. Alexander practiced respect for local cultures. Conquered nations paid tributes but they absorbed only what they wanted from Hellenistic culture.

Modern usage
De-Hellenization (or De-Hellenisation) is another complex and debated term used to describe a cultural change in which something Greek becomes non-Greek (non-Hellenic). The process can either be voluntary, or, commonly, applied with varying degrees of force.
Through history, the term has been used in connection with the Islamization and eventual Turkification of some Greek populations in the Ottoman Empire, beginning with inhabitants of eastern thrace, and also of the slavicised Greek inhabitants in the Balkans (see Slavophone Greeks) , while the Aromanians of greece stress links with the country , numbering at least 84 Vlach associations around its localities. (the membership of the Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs) [2], [3].
In recent times, it has sometimes been used in connection with the Second World War and the triple occupation of Greece [4], Enver Hoxha's regime in Albania [5] (a country with a large Greek minority in the southern part of the country) [6] and with the Greek Muslims.

De-Hellenization
Re-Hellenization (or Re-Hellenisation) is a further debated term used to describe a cultural change in which something which had been originally Greek, becomes Greek again, after a period of time in which it was not Greek (De-Hellenization). The process can either be voluntary, or applied with varying degrees of force.
The term is used in a number of contexts, regarding the re-hellenization of the southern Slavic population in the Balkans. Arguably, the term can be used for the Kalasha tribe in Pakistan, that claims descent from the Greeks of Alexander the Great, and where Greek volunteers (with the help of the Greek government) have built 5 schools.[7]. The Vlachs of Greece (Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians) are another group associated with disputed origins. The Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs (Πανελλήνια Ομοσπονδία Πολιτιστικών Συλλόγων Βλάχων), a federation of at least 84 Vlach associations located throughout Greece, staed on the 28th February 2001 : we, the Vlach-speaking Greeks ,do not request recognition from outside as a minority because both historically and culturally we were and are an integral part of the Greek nation [8]. Other Vlach associations (from Romania, Albania, Republic of Macedonia, and especially those from the Diaspora) reject a Greek origin for Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians. The existence of Vlachs in Albania professing a Greek identity has been reported : they are often invited by Vlachs of Greece to festivals, and receive assistance from greek-vlachs to improve living standards, while vlachs in the republic of macedonia do not express a greek identity.